Bobele, M. (1989).  A comparison of beliefs about healthy family functioning.  Family Therapy, 16(1):  21-31. 

Abstract:  This study compares the responses of clinical and non-clinical families to a questionnaire measuring perceptions of healthy family functioning.  The responses of these two groups are also compared to responses obtained  in three previous studies of families, clergy, and  therapists to the same questionnaire.  The questionnaire used was developed by Fisher and Sprenkle (1980) and contained 34 statements whose importance to healthy  family functioning can be rated on a 1-5 Likert scale. The 34 items in the questionnaire are clustered according to three dimensions: communication, cohesion, and unity. The sample in the present study consisted of two groups of families  clinical and non-clinical.  The clinical sample consisted of 108 persons from families who were  currently in counseling and was predominantly Hispanic (73%). The non-clinical sample consisted of 140 family members who  were not currently in therapy and was predominantly Anglo  (76%).  English and Spanish versions of the questionnaire  were used. The responses of the clinical and non-clinical families were compared to each other as well as to the responses of families, clergy, and therapists obtained in previous studies to determine which groups were highly similar or less similar  in their rankings of the items in the questionnaire.  The results revealed that family members from clinical and non clinical families were similar in their perceptions of healthy family functioning, placing more value on cohesion and family unity.  Clergy were similar to the families in their responses. In contrast, correlation of the responses of therapists with the responses of clergy and both groups of families was low.  Therapists placed more value on adaptability and individuality. 

        Boss, P. (1980).  Normative family stress: Boundary changes across the life span. Family Relations, 29, 445-450. 

Abstract:  A family's boundaries are determined by its members perceptions of who is inside or outside the family system and is significantly related to the relationships within the family as well as the family's relationship with the outside world.  The author proposes that ambiguous family boundaries may lead to family dysfunction. Stress in the form of family membership changes resulting from marriage, birth, death, or adolescents leaving home may be accommodated by the family through a shifting of the family members' usual roles.  The allocation of family resources to accommodate stressful family changes will maintain family system boundaries and facilitate healthy family functioning.  A family's boundaries should allow for and adapt to change if it is to successfully cope with normative stress. 

       Bowen, G. L. and Chapman, M.V. (1996).  Poverty, neighborhood danger, social support, and individual adaptation among at-risk youth in urban areas.  Journal of Family Issues, 17(5):  641-666. 

Abstract:  This article examines the lives of adolescents living in two  urban areas in the United States from an ecological perspective focusing on poverty, neighborhood danger, and social  support and their relationship to individual adaptation.  The data analyzed for this study were obtained from 207 students  aged 10-20 years old who responded to the School Success Profile (SSP).  The SSP provides information on social environment and individual adaptation.  Individual adaptation  was assessed by 3 measures:  a) physical health, b) psychological well-being, and 3) adjustment.  Social support  included neighborhood support, teacher support, parent support, and friend support.  Neighborhood danger was assessed by objective and subjective measures.  Results from the data analysis revealed that adolescents from low socioeconomic households reported more objective and subjective danger in their neighborhoods.  In addition, physical health was associated with less objective neighborhood danger.  Social support from parents consistently emerged as a significant predictor of all measures of individual adaptation and social support from neighbors and teachers were significant predictors of psychological well-being. 

      Carter, Betty; & McGoldrick, M. (Eds., 1988). The changing family life cycle: A framework for family therapy. New York, NY: Gardner Press. 

Abstract:  Research and therapy insights on cohesion and adaptability themes through life-cycle transitions from a developmental and systems theory base. 

      Cowan, C.P. and Cowan, P.A. (1995).  Interventions to ease the transition to parenthood: Why they are needed and what they can do. Family Relations, 44(4):  412-423. 

Abstract:  The authors present evidence from longitudinal studies of several changes that often accompany the transition to parenthood with a focus on individual adaptation to parenthood and changes in the marital relationship.  The finding that marital satisfaction declines after the birth of a first child is discussed and the connection between parents' adaptation and parental quality is stressed.  These research findings are used as justification for more early intervention  programs that would target the domains were problems are most likely to occur.  The authors provide several examples of intervention programs for both low-risk and high-risk families discussing their strengths as well as their weaknesses. 

       Deveaux, F. (1995).  Intergenerational transmission of cultural family patterns.  Family Therapy, 22(1):  17-23. 

Abstract:    The author stresses the importance of the transmission of  cultural patterns in understanding family dynamics.  A strategy called “story gathering” is described in which a client discusses recent familial issues interwoven with  historical material.  Through story gathering, the clinician learns about the cultural patterns of the client's  family and helps the client to become aware of these patterns and how they contribute to the context in which familial relationships develop.  Once the cultural context  is recognized, it can be redefined and reorganized to foster more adaptive functioning.  The author presents a case  illustration and discusses the importance of cultural neutrality on the part of the clinician. 

        Dugan, T. (1989).  Action and acting out: Variables in the development of resiliency in adolescence.  In D.F. Dugan & R. Coles (Eds.), The Child in Our Times: Studies in the Development of Resiliency. Brunner/Mazel: NY 

Abstract:  The author presents the position that acting out behavior in adolescence is an indicator of resilience that demonstrates the adaptive capacity of being able to act in relationship to others.  The case of an 18 year-old depressed male is presented and used throughout the chapter to illustrate the concepts discussed.  A review of the literature on protective factors that promote successful adaptation is provided.  Different viewpoints on the origin and definition of acting out behavior are described, many of which are influenced by psychoanalytic thought.  The concept of distance or disengagement is presented as a point of convergence between the literature on acting out and the literature on resiliency. 

       Farrell, M.P., and Barnes, G. M. (1993). Family systems and social support: A test of the effects of cohesion and adaptability on the functioning of parents and adolescents.  Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 119-132. 

Abstract:  The purpose of this study was to test the relationships proposed in Olson's Circumplex Model, Beavers’ System Theory, and social support theory.  Cohesion and adaptability in families were examined in terms of their relation to  optimal family functioning.  Of primary interest were tests of the curvilinear relationships of cohesion and adaptability to optimal family functioning found in previous studies considered by the authors to be methodologically flawed.  Six hundred ninety-nine families completed Family Adaptation and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES III) to assess the effects  of cohesion and adaptability on family members' psychological functioning, behavior, and perceptions of family relationships.  Instead of the curvilinear effect found in previous studies by  Olson and Beavers, the authors found a direct linear relation ship between cohesion and optimal family functioning.  In addition, adaptation was found to be directly related to optimal functioning, but only for girls. 

       Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty.  American Behavioral Scientist, 34(4): 416-430. 

Abstract:  The lives of disadvantaged children are often affected by the risk factors associated with poverty including low birth weight, malnutrition, social deprivation, and environmental inadequacy. These factors can then lead to increased risk of school failure ultimately resulting in unemployment and underemployment. Amid the risk factors can exist protective factors that help disadvantaged children overcome adversity.  A review of the research on resiliency among high risk children reveals a number of protective factors such as dispositional attributes, supportive parents, and a stable and cohesive family. The integration of schools and families is needed to promote cognitive and social competence in children at risk.  Children spend a substantial amount of time in school, making it an obvious candidate as an agent for adaptation.  The school environment influences a child's development through teachers, peers, and curricula.  The school can be used to enhance children's competence and can act as a protective factor by helping children to develop the ability to withstand the life stressors that often accompany poverty. 

        Lindblad-Goldberg, M. (1989). Successful minority single-parent families.  In L. Combrinck  Graham (Ed.), Children in Family Contexts.  Guilford Press, New York. 

Abstract:  The purpose of this article is to dispel the beliefs underlying the deficit model of the single-parent family and to contribute to the development of a normative model that can be  used to describe adaptive, single-parent family functioning. The author describes a study she conducted with colleagues in which 126 female-headed, single-parent families participated (70 classified as "functional" and 56 classified as  "clinical").  It was hypothesized that adaptive or nonadaptive functioning would be related to three dimensions:  1) family's internal resources (i.e., structure or organization of the family, communication patterns); 2) environmental stress (i.e., family handling of extrafamilial  stressful events); and 3) social network resources (i.e., family, relatives, friends, coworkers).  The findings indicated that well functioning single-parent families had a  hierarchy of authority in which the mother was clearly in  charge, placed more emphasis on the positive aspects of stressful events, and were similar to less adaptive single parent families in the structure of their social networks. 

       Littlejohn-Blake, S.M. and Darling, C.A. (1993). Understanding the strengths of African-American  families.  Journal of Black Studies, 23(4): 460-471. 

Abstract:  The authors define family strengths as "those relationship patterns, interpersonal competencies, and social and psychological characteristics that create a sense of positive family identity."  Four strengths of African-American families are identified: 1) religion and spirituality, 2) household elasticity (the taking in of family members and friends who need financial and/or emotional support), 3) resiliency in the face of adversity, and 4) family members' strong sense of self and heritage.  These strengths are considered functionally adaptive and have developed in response to adverse external conditions. The authors apply various conceptual and theoretical  perspectives such as exchange theory and the structural functional model in their analysis of the resiliency of  African-American family patterns in an effort to explain the adaptive nature of these patterns.  Methodological issues are  also addressed.  The authors argue that flawed sampling procedures can result in a distorted image of African-Americans and stress the importance of including African-American families of all class levels.  Interviewer characteristics should also be a concern.  Interviewers of the same racial back ground as the respondents are more likely to collect valid data and approach topics in a racially sensitive manner. The authors also suggest greater collection of qualitative data rather than quantitative data arguing that qualitative  approaches provide more richly detailed data.  Their recommendations for future research include cross-cultural comparisons of family strengths, theory development through interrelating the concepts presented in the family strengths literature, and a greater focus on African-American family stability and cultural identity. 

        Mathis, R. D., and Tanner, Z. (1991).  Cohesion, adaptability, and satisfaction of family systems later in life.  Family Therapy, 18(1):  47-60. 

Abstract:  The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics families in later life using standard instruments.  Forty-seven couples having at least one spouse who was 65 years of age or  older, responded to the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales (FACES III couples version) and the Family Satisfaction Scale.  It was hypothesized that older couples would be higher in satisfaction, adaptability, and overall functioning than couples in all stages of the family life-cycle drawn from a national sample, but there would be no differences in cohesion. Older couples were found to be significantly more satisfied than  couples drawn from the national sample.  However, older couples'  family adaptability was so high, it would be considered unhealthy  according to the Circumplex Model.  Older families were also found  be as cohesive as younger families, despite their geographic separation. 

       Olson, D. H., Lavee, Y., McCubbin, H. I. (1988).  Types of families and family response to stress  across the life cycle.  In D. M. Klein and J. Aldous, (Eds.), Social stress and family development. Guilford Press: New York. 

Abstract:  This chapter ties together three areas of research and theory:  family development, family stress and adaptation, and family  systems typology.  Using data collected from a nationwide study of non-clinical families, the authors examined the relationships of family stain, stressors, and adaptation to family life stage and family type.  Each family was categorized into one of four family life stages: young couples, families with young children, families with adolescents,  or older couples.  In addition, each family was categorized into one of four family types: flexible-separated, flexible connected, structured-separated, or structured-connected.  Families with children at home were found to experience more stressors and strains than families in the pre or post parental stages.  Couples in the pre and post parental stages exhibited flexibility whereas families with children were more  structured.  Connected families were found to be more resilient. 

       Sanders, G.F., and Trygstad, D.W. (1993).  Strengths in the grandparent-grandchild relationship.  Activities, adaptation, and aging, 17(4):  43-53. 

Abstract:  The purpose of this study was to examine the quality of the  grandparent-grandchild relationship through measuring the family strengths of young-adult grandchildren in their relationship with their grandparent.  Amount of contact, importance of the relationship to the grandchild, personal roles the grandparent plays, and behaviors expected were also examined in relation to family strengths.  Data from 125 college students revealed that a majority of the subjects indicated that they considered their relationship with their grandparent  important and their interactions with their grandparent reflected high family strengths.  Higher family strengths were found to correspond to more frequent contact grandchild grandparent contact. The results also indicated that the  strength of the grandparent-grandchild relationship was higher  when the grandparent was perceived as performing more relation ship activities.  Based on these findings, the authors make several recommendations for families and those who work with families which center around greater attention being given to the importance of the grandparent-grandchild relationship. 

       Stinnett, N. and DeFrain, J. (1989).  The healthy family: Is it possible?  In M.J. Fine (Ed.), The second handbook on parent education.  Academic Press: San Diego, CA 

Abstract:  The authors, who have been studying healthy families since  the 1970s, discuss the six qualities of strong families consistently found in their studies: commitment, appreciation, communication, time together, spiritual wellness, and the ability to cope with stress and crisis. The authors argue that commitment binds the members of a family together and may act as the foundation for the other five family strengths.  Committed family members consider the family their first priority and invest a great deal of time and energy in family activities. Appreciation is the expression of gratitude between family members.  The authors suggest following the 10 to 1 rule: expressing appreciation for something positive a family member does at least 10 times for each negative thing you say. Communication in healthy families entails discussing  major as well as trivial issues.  Discussions are often task oriented and members are intent on getting problems solved.  The communication patterns in strong families are characterized by factors like understanding the other person's view and  breaking down problems into logical components. Members of strong families enjoy time with one another engaging in activities such as eating together, household chores, outdoor recreation, and church. Religion or spiritual wellness is important in many strong families.  The authors describe it as a unifying force that promotes sharing, love, and compassion. Strong families successfully cope with stress and crisis and are creative and adaptable in the face of adversity.  Their coping resources include pulling together, seeking help for their problems, and openly expressing emotion. The authors list and suggest reading the work of researchers like Otto and Olson whose findings are similar.  They also recommend using family strengths concepts in parent education and programming. 

       Summers, J. A., Behr, S. K., and Turnbull, A. P. (1989). Positive adaptation and coping strengths of families  who have children with disabilities.  In G.H.S. Singer and L.K. Irvin (Eds.), Support for caregiving families: Enabling positive adaptation to disability.  Paul H. Brookes: Baltimore, MD. 

Abstract:  Having a child with a disability is more often discussed in terms of family distress rather that family strength, but as  the authors point out, there is much evidence that provides  support for the notion that having a child with a disability may contribute to family strength.  Most of this evidence lies in family narratives and anecdotal literature.  Many parents  and siblings discuss the disabled family member in terms of  their positive contributions to the family.  Themes of parent and sibling narratives and anecdotes include tolerance, faith, strength, professional and personal growth and development, and understanding the meaning of life.  Empirical studies have reported comparable findings.  These studies also suggest that parents' perceptions about positive contributions of their disabled children are similar to perceptions about positive  contributions of children without disabilities. The authors use the double ABCX model of stress to explain the family strength that may arise from having a  child with a disability.  The model proposes that the challenges a family faces may cause it to develop its resources and focus its perceptions on the positive aspects of family life.  Coping skills and resources predictive of family success are problem-solving and behavior management skills; negotiation and communication skills in working with professionals; informal social support, including other family members; and generic community support. Another important component of coping the authors address is the way in which stressful situations are perceived by the family.  The authors believe that Taylor's (1983) theory of cognitive adaptation can be used to study how family members may change their perceptions of stressful  situations.  According to Taylor, cognitive adaptation consists of three dimensions: 1) attributing a cause for the  event, 2) a sense of mastery or control over the event and  over one's life, and 3) enhancing one's self-esteem. The article ends with a discussion of the ways in which family support services and professionals can encourage the use these cognitive coping strategies to facilitate healthy functioning in families with disabled children. 

       Weick, A. and Saleebey, D. (1995).  Supporting family strengths: Orienting policy and practice toward the 21st century.  Families in Society, 141-149. 

Abstract:  The authors discuss a "new family portrait," which has dramatically changed the traditional conception of family and incorporates divorce, cohabitation, single parenthood,  and domestic partnership.  Challenges faced by families  need to be met by family policy, theory, and practice that  recognize these challenges and the ways in which families  adapt to them.  The family must no longer be viewed  as an isolated, autonomous economic and social unit, but  must be seen as connected to the community and the larger society.  Family policy and practice must focus on family  strengths and empowerment rather than pathology. 

      Werner, E. E. (1989).  High risk children in young adulthood: A longitudinal study from birth to 32 years.  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59(2):  72-81. 

Abstract:    The purpose of this article is to describe a 30-year follow-up study of a 1955 birth cohort on the island of Kauai, Hawaii. The relative impact of biological and psychosocial risk factors, stressful life events, and protective factors were traced beginning in the prenatal period and continuing through childhood, late adolescence, and young adulthood.  The results of this longitudinal study revealed three types of protective factors: 1) dispositional attributes, 2) affectional ties within the family, and 3) external support systems.  These protective factors were found to contribute to resilience in children by fostering adaptation to specific risk factors or stressful life events.  The impact of protective and risk factors changed with the stages of the life cycle and varied with the gender of the individual as well. 

       Winton, P.J. (1990).  Promoting a normalizing approach to families: Integrating  theory with practice.  Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 10(2):  90-103. 

Abstract:  The author argues that early childhood special educators face the challenge of determining what is normal for families and using  this information in the development of intervention.  The ABCX Model of Family Adaptation is described as a framework for identifying global family strengths and the ways in which this information may be linked to outcomes and intervention to reflect the normalizing principle are considered.  The ABCX model is applied to parental selection of a preschool program to demonstrate how it can be used for structuring an informal information-gathering  process.  The information gathered can then be used to develop  goals and strategies tailored to the family's definition of what  is most normal for them. 
 
 

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