Abeyta, C. G. and R. G. Roybal (1996). Ground-water quality, water year 1995, and statistical analysis of ground-water-quality data, water years 1994-95, at the Chromic Acid Pit site, U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas. Albuquerque, NM, Branch of Information Services, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 45 p.
	The Chromic Acid Pit site is an active waste disposal site that is regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976.  The 2.2-cubic-yard cement-lined pit was operated from 1980 to 1983 by a contractor to the U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss.  The pit, located on the Fort Bliss military reservation in El Paso, Texas, was used for disposal and evaporation of chromic acid waste generated from chrome plating operations.  The site was closed in 1989, and the Texas Natural Resources Conservation  Commission issued permit number HW-50296 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency number TX4213720101), which approved and implemented post-closure care for the Chromic Acid Pit site.  In accordance with an approved post-closure plan, the U.S. Geological Survey is cooperating witht the U.S.  Army in monitoring and evaluating ground-water quality at the site.  One upgradient ground-water monitoring well (MW1) and two downgradient ground-water monitoring wells (MW2 and MW3), installed adjacent to the chromic acid pit, are monitored on a quarterly basis.  Ground-water sampling of these wells by the U.S. Geological Survey began in December 1993.

The ground-water level, measured in a production well located approximately 1,700 feet southeast of the Chromic Acid Pit site, has declined about 29.43 feet from 1982 to 1995.  Depth to water at the Chromic Acid Pit site in September 1995 was 284.2 to 286.5 feet below land surface; ground-water flow at the water table is assumed to be toward the southeast.  

Ground-water samples collected from monitoring wells at the Chromic Acid Pit site during water year 1995 contained dissolved-solids concentrations of 481 to 516 milligrams per liter. Total chromium concentrations detected above laboratory reporting limit ranged from 0.0061 to 0.030 milligram per liter; dissolved chromium  concentrations ranged from 0.0040 to 0.010 milligram per liter.  Nitrate as nitrogen concentrations ranged from 2.1 to 2.8 milligrams per liter; nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen concentrations ranged from 2.4 to 3.2 milligrams per liter.  Water samples from wells MW1 and MW2 were analyzed for volatile organic compounds for the first quarter; no confirmed volatile organic compounds were detected above laboratory reporting  limits.  Detected chemical concentrations in water from the chromic acid pit monitoring wells during the four sampling periods were below U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-established maximum contaminant levels fro public drinking-water supplies.  Overall, water-quality characteristics of water from the chromic acid pit ground-water monitoring wells are similar to those of other wells in the surrounding area.   

Statistical analyses were performed on 56 of the chemical constituents analyzed for in ground water from the chromic acid pit monitoring wells.  Concentrations of chloride, fluoride, sulfate, and potassium were significantly less in water from one or both downgradient wells than in water from the upgradient well.  Concentrations of nitrate as nitrogen, nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen, and dissolved solids were significantly greater in water from the downgradient wells than in water from the upgradient well.  Concentrations of nitrate as nitrogen, chloride, and potassium were significantly different in water from the two downgradient wells.  Statistical analysis of chemical constituents in water from the chromic acid pit monitoring wells did not appear to indicate a release of hazardous chemicals from the chromic acid pit.  There was no indication of ground-water contamination in either downgradient well. 

Abeyta, C. G. and C. L. Thomas (1996). Hydrogeology and ground-water quality of the chromic acid pit site, U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas. Albuquerque, NM, Earth Science Information Center, Open-File Reports Section, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 67 p.
	     The Chromic Acid Pit site is an inactive waste disposal site 
that is regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 
1976. The 2.2-cubic-yard cement-lined pit was operated from 1980 
to 1983 by a contractor to the U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery 
Center and Fort Bliss. The pit, located on the Fort Bliss military 
reservation, in El Paso, Texas, was used for disposal and 
evaporation of chromic acid waste generated from chrome plating 
operations. The site was certified closed in 1989 and the Texas 
Natural Resources Conservation Commission issued Permit Number 
HW-50296 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Permit Number 
TX4213720101), which approved and implemented post-closure care 
for the Chromic Acid Pit site. In accordance with an approved 
post-closure plan, the U.S. Geological Survey is cooperating with 
the U.S. Army in evaluating hydrogeologic conditions and ground-
water quality at the site. One upgradient and two downgradient 
ground-water monitoring wells were installed adjacent to the 
chromic acid pit by a private contractor. Quarterly ground-water 
sampling of these wells by the U.S. Geological Survey began in 
December 1993.

     The Chromic Acid Pit site is situated in the Hueco Bolson 
intermontane valley. The Hueco Bolson is a primary source of 
ground water in the El Paso area. City of El Paso and U.S. Army 
water-supply wells are located on all sides of the study area and 
are completed 600 to more than 1,200 feet below land surface. The 
ground-water level in the area of the Chromic Acid Pit site has 
declined about 25 feet from 1982 to 1993. Depth to water at the 
Chromic Acid Pit site in September 1994 was about 284 feet below 
land surface; ground-water flow is to the southeast.

     Ground-water samples collected from monitoring wells at the 
Chromic Acid Pit site contained dissolved-solids concentrations 
of 442 to 564 milligrams per liter. Nitrate as nitrogen 
concentrations ranged from 2.1 to 2.7 milligrams per liter; 
nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen concentrations ranged from 2.3 
to 3.0 milligrams per liter. Nitrate concentrations are 
abnormally high in the Old Mesa well field located about 5,000 
feet southwest of the Chromic Acid Pit site. Volatile and 
semivolatile organic compounds in water samples were analyzed for 
the first sampling round; no confirmed volatile or semivolatile 
organic compounds were detected above the laboratory reporting 
limits. Total chromium concentrations ranged from 0.0099 to 0.092 
milligram per liter; dissolved chromium concentrations ranged 
from 0.0068 to 0.0094 milligram per liter. Overall, water-quality 
characteristics in water from the chromic acid pit ground-water 
monitoring wells are similar to those in the surrounding area. 
Detected chemical concentrations in water from the chromic acid 
pit monitoring wells during the four sampling periods were below 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-established maximum 
contaminant levels for public drinking water supplies.

     Statistical analyses were performed on 39 of the chemical 
constituents analyzed for in ground water from the chromic acid 
pit monitoring wells. Concentrations of chloride and fluoride 
were significantly less in water from the downgradient wells than 
in water from the upgradient well, whereas concentrations of 
nitrate as nitrogen, nitrite plus nitrate as nitrogen, and 
dissolved solids were significantly greater in water from the 
downgradient wells than in water from the upgradient well. 
Concentrations of nitrate as nitrogen were significantly 
different in water from the two downgradient wells. Differences 
detected through statistical analysis of chemical constituents of 
water in the chromic acid pit monitoring wells did not appear to 
indicate a release of hazardous chemicals from the chromic acid 
pit. There was no indication of ground-water contamination in 
either downgradient well.

Albertson, P. E. (1998). Geomorphic Development of the Fort Leonard Wood Landscape (Missouri), University of Missouri - Rolla: 156 p.
	Land is considered one of the Army's most valuable resources.  Land managers in both the civil-works arena and military-operational theater are concerned with land-use sustainability.  Fort Leonard Wood, (FLW) Missouri was selected as a study area because it has been the site of engineering training for over five decades.  The US Army inherited a landscape undergoing disequilibrium resulting from historic land-use activities.  Using an integrated approach, available information and technologies were applied to answer geomorphic inquiries of equilibrium and recovery.

Classical geomorphology envisions the Fort situated on a mature peneplain.  A dynamic equilibrium approach considers the landscape as a balance between driving and resisting forces.  Analysis of karst denudation indicate an average dissolution rate of 16 mm/1000 years.  Assuming a uniform rate dissolution, calculations suggest that the karst topography evolved over the past 4 million years old.  Subsequent partial filling of the valley with alluvium provided a data-bank to explain the last 2 million years.  Depositional rates indicate that the landscape responded to both climatic change and historic land-use activities.  Oral histories supplemented data to define the processes of erosion.  Many of the informants agreed that the land is reaching a stable state.  Soil-loss equations calculated sediment loads for decade time-scales.  Modern sediment studies were used to validate soil-loss equations.  The values derived from the soil-loss simulations still leave some uncertainty.  The studies suggested that the sediment load increased sharply in response to historic land-use change.  Current conservation practices have reduced soil loss and the landscape seems to be in recovery.  Collectively, the several lines of evidence suggested the landscape is healing from past stresses.

Althoff, D. P., J. W. Rivers, et al. (2004). "A comprehensive approach to identifying monitoring priorities of small landbirds on military installations." Environmental Management 34(6): 887-902.
	Military installations provide important native habitat for songbirds, including many species that have experienced population declines in recent decades. As part of the Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program to monitor animal populations on military lands, we surveyed small (< 250 g) breeding landbirds on 60 permanent plots on the Fort Riley Military Installation in northeastern Kansas from 1991 to 2002. During this period, species richness averaged 39.0 species ( SE 0.9)/ year and mean species richness per plot ranged from 3.6 species ( SE = 0.2)/ plot ( 1999) to 7.5 species ( SE = 0.3)/ plot ( 1992). Turnover ( the appearance and disappearance of species on all plots from one year to the next) ranged from 5 species ( 2000 - 2001) to 16 species ( 1992 - 1993) and was driven primarily by turnover of woodland species. We developed an index of relative difference ( C) to evaluate relative trends of local populations and found that 25 species declined, 15 species increased, and 7 did not change. Based on migration assemblages, more resident species ( 6 of 10) and more short-distant migrants ( 9 of 12) decreased than long-distance migrants ( 10 vs. 11). Our analysis of major vegetation communities on plots showed few changes in the quantity of habitats ( grassland vs. woodlands) during the study. Our results indicate that Fort Riley provides important habitats for many landbirds, particularly those that require grasslands for breeding. Several species exhibited local declines when compared to the regional Breeding Bird Survey routes. We offer an approach that evaluates population changes of small landbirds and provides objective inputs for conservation directives. These can be adopted easily for use on military installations ( that use LCTA), parks, and wildlife refuges that have data from annual breeding bird surveys.

Althoff, P. S. and S. J. Thien (2005). "Impact of M1A1 main battle tank disturbance on soil quality, invertebrates, and vegetation characteristics." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 159-176.
	Military training commonly results in land degradation, but protocols for assessing and predicting long-term environmental impact are lacking. An ability to assess the impact of repeated disturbance and subsequent recovery is needed to balance training requirements against environmental quality. To develop methodology for assessing soil quality, a study evaluating disturbance resulting from tank maneuvers was initiated on Fort Riley Military Installation, Kansas. The objectives were to identify and quantify soil-quality indicators on two soil types exposed to controlled tank traffic. We examined physical, chemical, and biotic indicators after treatments were applied during wet and dry soil conditions. A randomized complete-block design, with three blocks per soil type and three treatments per block, was used. Treatments consisted of disturbance created by a 63-ton M1A1 tank making five passes in a figure-8 pattern during either dry or wet soil conditions. The M1A1 was operated at a speed of approximately 8 km/h. Control plots received no tank traffic. Soil-quality indicators evaluated were soil compaction, soil penetration resistance, rut depth, soil bulk density, soil texture, soil chemical composition, plant biomass, soil microbial diversity, and nematode and earthworm taxa. Soil-quality indicators were sampled within one week after tank disturbance. Preliminary data indicate soil-texture-dependent treatment effects (p <= 0.05) for bulk density and porosity. Bulk density increased and porosity decreased on trafficked areas, in the silt loam soil, but showed no change in the silty clay loam soil. Disturbance during wet soil conditions raised penetrometer resistance and gravimetric water content more than disturbance during dry soil conditions (p <= 0.05). A significant difference in disturbance was measured between the outside and inside portion of the same track (p <= 0.01 and 0.001, respectively). The outside track caused the greatest amount of disturbance, as measured by the height of the disturbed soil ridge above the track bed. Tank disturbance significantly reduced total vegetative biomass (p <= 0.05) compared with that of un-trafficked areas. Disturbance under wet soil conditions significantly reduced grass biomass (p = 0.040), whereas disturbance under dry soil conditions significantly reduced forb biomass (P = 0.0247) compared to un-trafficked areas. Total earthworm abundance (p = 0.011) was reduced by 82% when disturbance occurred during wet soil conditions regardless of soil type. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Anders, A. D. and D. C. Dearborn (2004). "Population trends of the endangered golden-cheeked warbler at Fort Hood, Texas, from 1992-2001." Southwestern Naturalist 49(1): 39-47.
	We assessed population trends of the endangered golden-checked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia) at Fort Hood, Texas, using point-count data from 1992 through 2001. We assessed the effect of a large-scale fire in 1996 on these population trends and the effect of military training activities on relative abundance of golden-checked warblers. Results indicated that the population has increased steadily at Fort Hood during the 10-yr period. The 1996 fire might have caused a decrease in detections from 1996 through 2001, but excluding any localized effects of the fire, population size continued to increase. Analyses of data from areas with and without military training detected no effect of these activities on the relative abundance of golden-checked warblers. Habitat protection and a cowbird-control program might have contributed to the increasing population of golden-checked warblers at Fort Hood during the period of study. Data on population trends, demography, and factors limiting population size are needed from other areas to understand more fully the threats to and management needs of the golden-checked warbler.

Andersen, D. E. (1984). Military Training and the Ecology of Raptor Populations at Fort Carson, Colorado. Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
	unable to get abstract

Andersen, D. E., O. J. Rongstad, et al. (1986). "The behavioral response of a Red-tailed Hawk to military training activity." Raptor Research 20(2): 65-68.
	From 13 August through 9 November 1982, we systematically radio-tracked an adult male Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) on the Fort Carson Military Reservation in east-central Colorado. Harmonic mean analysis of telemetry data indicated that the bird shifted its center of activity away from areas of high human activity, but returned to those areas after human activity ceased.  

Andersen, E. N. and R. Pudney (1989). Prescribed burning at Yakima Firing Range. Prescribed Fire in the Intermountain Region. D. M. Baumgartner, D. W. Breuer, B. A. Zamora, L. F. Neuenschwander and R. H. W. (eds), Washington State University, Pullman: 133-134.
	
Andersen, M. C., J. M. Watts, et al. (2000). "Regression-tree modeling of desert tortoise habitat in the central Mojave Desert." Ecological Applications 10(3): 890-900.
	This paper describes an interdisciplinary study of the habitat requirements of threatened desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) on eight 225-ha study plots in a 14000 ha study area near the southern boundary of the U.S. Army's National Training Center at Fort Irwin in the central Mojave Desert of southern California. The objective of the study was to produce an empirical, statistical, GIS-based model of desert tortoise habitat use based on a combination of field data and data derived from various spatial databases, including satellite imagery. A total of 11 primary and secondary data layers constitute the spatial database used for this project. Vegetation and tortoise relative density data were obtained from field surveys. Regression-tree methods were used to develop the statistical model. The toe has 11 terminal nodes and a residual mean deviance of 1.985, Out of 73 potential predictors in the model specification, only eight were selected by the algorithm to be used in construction of the tree. The model suggests that tortoises tend to occur on southwest exposures and loamy soils, and that they avoid stony soils, north exposure, and areas of very low plant cover. Our results imply that soil composition and parent materials can be important determinants of habitat suitability for desert tortoises, and for burrowing animals in general. Our study also provides an example of hew the interdisciplinary integration of biology, earth sciences, GIS, and statistical modeling can reveal important aspects of the habitat requirements of endangered species.

Anderson, A. B. (2002). "Detecting changes in natural resources using Land Condition Trend Analysis data." Environmental Management 29(3): 428-436.
	The Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program is the US Army's standard for land inventory and monitoring, employing standardized methods of natural resources data collection, analyses, and reporting designed to meet multiple goals and objectives. Critical to using LCTA data in natural resources management decisions is the ability of the LCTA protocols to detect changes in natural resources, To quantify the ability of LCTA protocols to detect resource changes, power analysis techniques were used to estimate minimum detectable effect sizes (MDES) for selected primary and secondary management variables for three Army installations, MDES for a subset of primary variables were estimated using data from 27 installation LCTA programs, MDES for primary and secondary variables varied widely. However, LCTA programs implemented at larger installations with lower sampling intensities detected changes in installation resources as well as programs implemented at smaller more intensively sampled installations, As a national monitoring program that is implemented at individual installations, LCTA protocols provide relatively consistent monitoring data to detect changes in resources despite diverse resource characteristics and implementation constraints.  [References: 37] 37

Anderson, A. B. and J. S. Fehmi (2005). "Comparison of two survey methods for estimating vegetative cover." Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 97(3-4): 165-178.
	Effective management of natural resources requires survey information regarding initial resource condition. It is not uncommon for sampling methods to change over time or for data from different surveys to be used in support of a common management goal. When data from surveys that utilize different methodologies are combined, error and bias associated with each survey methodology can confound interpretation of results. The Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program is an U.S. Army inventory and monitoring program that employs standardized methods of data collection, analyses, and reporting. The LCTA program uses a modified point intercept transect methodology. As LCTA program objectives evolve, interests in alternative sampling methodologies have increased. A number of installation LCTA programs have started using variations of the releve method to characterize vegetation. A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of alternative survey methodologies on vegetation characterization. The study consisted of 107 plots randomly established across the study area. Identical survey crews surveyed each plot using standard LCTA and releve methodologies. LCTA methods consistently resulted in larger cover estimates especially at the uppermost height stratum. These differences resulted in LCTA methods classifying more plots as closed forest types than releve methods. The two survey methods tended to agree in more open vegetation types (grasslands and disturbed areas). Differences in survey results are attributed to differences in methodology because the differences could not be solely attributed to differences in area sampled.

Anderson, A. B., P. J. Guertin, et al. (1996). Land Condition Trend Analysis Data: Power Analysis, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory.
	The Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program is the Army's standard for land inventory and monitoring, employing standardized methods of natural resources data collection, analyses, and reporting designed to meet multiple goals and objectives. LCTA data has been used to characterize installation natural resources, evaluate the effects of Army multiple use demands on training lands, groundtruth remote sensed imagery, and as a source of data for land based carrying capacity modeling efforts. A critical element of many of these applications is the ability of LCTA data protocols to detect changes in installation natural resources.  This report presents results of a study that used power analysis techniques to evaluate the ability of LCTA data collection protocols to detect changes in installation resources. The use of information and techniques presented in this report should increase land managers' confidence in conclusions drawn from studies using LCTA data by providing the information necessary to adequately judge the strength of evidence from those studies.

Anderson, A. B., A. J. Palazzo, et al. (2005). "Assessing the impacts of military vehicle traffic on natural areas. Introduction to the special issue and review of the relevant military vehicle impact literature." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 143-158.
	The American Society of Agronomy A-2 Division, Military Land Use and Management, and the International Society for Terrain-Vehicle Systems cosponsored a symposium titled "Assessing the Impacts of Military Vehicle Traffic on Natural Areas". The symposium was held in Denver, CO on 4 November 2003. The objectives of this symposium were to characterize the types of environmental impacts associated with off-road vehicle use at varying spatial scales, to characterize common study approaches used to quantify vehicle impacts, and to identify knowledge gaps that limit the use of study results in decision-making. A series of papers originating from the symposium characterize the range of impact studies frequently conducted on military installations and the application of study results to typical land management, decision-making processes. This paper summarizes the relationships between these studies, integrates the studies into a larger impact analysis framework, and identifies knowledge gaps that limit application of study results in decision-making processes. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Anderson, A. B., D. L. Price, et al. (1998). A Successional Dynamics Simulation Model as a Factor for Determining Military Training Land Carrying Capacity. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army  Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Reseach Lab: 22 p.
	The U.S. Army is committed to good stewardship of lands within military installations. The Army is also committed to achieving "training to standard" for its forces and therefore is interested in a method of determining optimum levels of training activities such that military preparedness is maximized and ecological impacts and their costs are minimized. A key requirement to the successful implementation of such an optimization is the development of a successional dynamics model that predicts ecological responses to military and non-military stressors. A prototype simulation model has been developed, in part, using Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) data from five Army installations. The model is based on responses of individual species and ecological processes to stressors. The model currently has climatic, edaphic, plant, decomposition, and animal modules. Current stressors include drought, nitrogen, fire, herbivory, and tactical maneuvers. The core model is adapted to forest, grassland, shrubland, and desert ecosystems. Site-specific data can be added to calibrate the model to a specific ecosystem within an installation. The model has been calibrated with LCTA data and applied to multiple plant communities at five installations: Fort Bliss, TX; Fort Carson, CO; Fort Hood, TX; Fort Riley, KS; and Yakima Training Center, WA.

Anderson, A. B., G. X. Wang, et al. (2005). "Assessing and predicting changes in vegetation cover associated with military land use activities using field monitoring data at Fort Hood, Texas." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 207-229.
	We assessed short-term impacts of changes in military training load on vegetative cover at Fort Hood, TX. From 1989 to 1995, permanent field transects were monitored for vegetative cover and land use disturbance using standard army monitoring methods [Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA)]. Land use intensity (training load) was quantified and used to develop a model to predict future vegetation cover values. We found that standard Army monitoring methods detected changes in installation resources associated with changes in training load. Increased training loads were associated with increased measures of disturbance, decreased ground cover, and decreased aerial vegetative cover. We found that the spatial pattern of disturbance and vegetation cover remained relatively constant over the study period despite large variations in overall training load. Our model used the consistency in spatial cover patterns over time and the strong relationship between training load and vegetation cover to predict the impact of future training loads on vegetation. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Anderson, A. B., J. A. Zeidler, et al. (2001). "A preliminary ethnobotanical survey of Fort Riley, Kansas." Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 104(1-2): 92-108.
	The Department of Defense (DoD) is responsible for administering more than 25 million acres of federally owned land in the United States. As a land manager, the DoD must comply with the intent and directives of a number of cultural resources related statutes, regulations, and policy memoranda. Because of these statutes, regulations, and policy memoranda, the potential impacts of land-use proposals on elements of Native American people's culture have become part of the social impact assessment studies used to evaluate the social soundness of proposed projects. These statutes, regulations, and policy memoranda requiring consultation with Native American groups and preservation of traditional cultural properties require comprehensive surveys that may include ethnobotanical surveys. Ethnobotanical surveys do not exist for most installations. A preliminary ethnobotanical survey of Fort Riley, Kansas was conducted. Results of this survey are reported and the approach used defines methodology and data sources applicable to many DoD installations.

Anderson, D. C. and W. K. Ostler (2002). "Revegetation of degraded lands at U.S. Department of Energy and U.S. Department of Defense Installations: Strategies and successes." Arid Land Research and Management 16(3): 197-212.
	Recent research has provided important principles to follow in successfully revegetating disturbed lands in arid climates. Sustainable revegetation needs to be accomplished within the confines of the existing ecosystem of the area. Revegetation planning, revegetation implementation, and evaluation and monitoring should be considered for each revegetation project. Planning includes conducting a site assessment, establishing goals and standards, determining site preparation requirements, selecting species, selecting revegetation techniques, selecting conservation and water management treatments, determining timing, and evaluating costs. Revegetation implementation begins with the selection of an on-site manager who will monitor adherence to the revegetation plan, conduct prejob meetings, and ensure revegetation is implemented as planned. Project evaluation and long-term management includes conducting on-site inspections, evaluating success, and implementing modification where necessary. Successful revegetation projects completed within the Great Basin and Mojave Desert ecoregions are presented. Seeding and transplanting prove to be successful in Great Basin ecoregion. Irrigation was used with highly predictable success in transition zone between Great Basin and Mojave Desert ecoregions. Seed pretreatment, irrigation, and various mulches show promise for successful revegetation in the drier Mojave Desert ecoregion.

Anonymous Idaho Army National Guard Orchard Training Area Environmental Handbook., Idaho Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (1976). Land use withdrawal, McGregor Range, Fort Bliss, Texas: draft environmental impact statement. Fort Bliss, Texas, United States Army Air Defense Center, United States Army Training and Doctrine Command.
	
Anonymous (1980). A cockroach (Blatta lateralis) - Texas - new state record. Cooperative-Plant-Pest-Report. A. D. Anders, United States Department of Agriculture: 74 p.
	Blatta lateralis (Wlk.) is recorded for the first time in Texas. In June 1979, infestations so heavy that eradication was impracticable were found in 2 buildings at Fort Bliss and in a vacant residential building at Biggs Field, all in El Paso County.

Anonymous (1980). Draft environmental impact statement on grazing management in the McGregor EIS area, United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	
Anonymous (1980). Grazing management :  McGregor EIS Area, New Mexico, United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office: 98 p.
	
Anonymous (1981). McGregor Range rangeland management program document, United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office: 14 p.
	
Anonymous (1982). McGregor range, rangeland management program document :  update report, United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	
Anonymous (1985). Environmental Impact Analysis Process. Winnersville Weapons Range, Lanier and Lowndes Counties, Georgia. Final Environmental Impact Statement, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN,  Funder: Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 204 p.
	This statement assesses the environmental impacts expected to result from construction and operation of the proposed Winnersville Range. The no-action alternative of not proceeding with establishment of the range is also considered. Salient impacts of range development would result from clearing vegetation on the 450-acre target area near the center of the Grand Bay/Banks Lake wetlands complex. The principal impacts of operation would result from increased noise levels in the vicinity of the 5900-acre range. The state has determined that the proposal is consistent with state plans and programs. The Department of the Interior (DOI) opposed use of the range due to noise impacts on Banks Lake National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) and asked for Air Force coordination with them. Such coordination will occur before any decisions are made. The Air Force does not believe that there are any overriding environmental factors that would render the proposed action unacceptable. (ERA citation 11:003674)

Anonymous (1985). Tropic Testing of Vehicles. Rept. on Test Operations Procedure, Army Test and Evaluation Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD: 42 p.
	This report fulfills the need for a document that establishes procedures for conducting mobility subtests in tropic environments. Facilities, instrumentation, test controls and data required are described, in addition to test procedures to be followed for conduct of the following mobility subtests: Soil tests: One-Pass Vehicle Cone Index, Drawbar Pull, Motion Resistance, and Acceleration/Deceleration; Surface Geometry Tests; Slope Negotiation and Discrete Obstacle; and Vegetation Tests; Single-Tree Override, Multiple-Tree Override and Grassland Override. Keywords: Tropic test center; Methodology; Trafficability; Tropic vehicular tests; Motion resistance; Obstacle test.

Anonymous (1985). White Sands Resource Area rangeland program summary: annual update, U.S. Dept. of the Interior,  Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	
Anonymous (1986). White Sands Resource Area rangeland program summary:  annual update, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	
Anonymous (1987). McGregor range rangeland management program document : update report., United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	
Anonymous (1987). Preservation of Flora and Fauna in Military Training Areas Proceedings: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) CCMS (Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society) Seminar Blue Book 159, , Soesterberg, Netherlands on 28-30 November 1984, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army).
	This document provides proceedings of the seminar on the Preservation of Flora and Fauna in Military Training Areas. The seminar was sponsored by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Committee on Challenges of Modern Society. Fifteen presentations were given on topics such as the effects of military training on soil, vegetation, birds, and mammals, and the various programs being used by NATO countries to help preserve and conserve these resources. The objectives of this document are to 1) disseminate the results of this seminar to U.A. Arym installation offices and headquarters responsible for managing Army installation offices and headquarters responsible for managing Army training lands and 2) provide a permanent documentation of the seminar proceedings that can be used by NATO members. These proceedings provide valuable and innovative insight about how other countries are handling the environmental problems associated with military training. They also represent a step in the process toward developing systems and guidelines to help U.S. Army installation land managers conserve the natural resources for which they are responsible, while still providing a more realistic training area. Keywords: Ecology; Environmental management.

Anonymous (1987). Soils resources technical memorandum.  Idaho Army National Guard,  Orchard Training Area, Environmental Management and Analysis Plan. Boise, ID.
	
Anonymous (1988). White Sands resource management plan amendment/environmental impact statement for McGregor Range :  draft, United States Bureau of Land Management. White Sands Resource Area.
	
Anonymous (1989). Environmental Assessment of the Realignment of Units at Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. Draft report, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC: 82 p.
	It is proposed that the Air Force Inspection and Safety Center (AFSIC) be transferred from Norton Air Force Base (AFB) in California to Kirtland AFB in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Within the same time frame, seven H-53 helicopters would be replaced with four MH-53J and four CH-53A helicopters, four H-3 helicopters would be replaced with five MH-60G helicopters, and three MC-130H aircraft would bed down at Kirtland AFB. Some facility construction and modification projects would be associated with these changes. This environmental assessment evaluates the potential environmental impacts of the proposed action. Noise modeling indicates that the changes in helicopters and the beddown of the MC-130H would cause only minor changes in the noise contours in the vicinity of Kirtland AFB. Aircraft emissions of all five criteria air pollutants would increase, but increases in the ambient pollutant levels at the base boundary are projected to be small, and concentrations would be well within air quality standards. No deterioration in the quality of the land, groundwater, or surface water resources would result from the proposed action. Small areas of vegetation would be removed by activities associated with the construction projects, but this removal would not jeopardize the ecological resources of the area, including any threatened or endangered species. No effects are expected on known archeological sites or historical resources.

Anonymous (1989). Environmental Assessment of the Realignment of Units at McChord Air Force Base, Washington, Military Airlift Command, Scott AFB, IL: 101 p.
	The action for this Environmental Assessment (EA) consists of the realignment of various aircraft and manpower authorization assets from Norton AFB to McChord AFB. The relocation actions will include transfers of personnel authorizations, aircraft, and various other equipment and material. Additional basing changes at McChord AFB also are assessed in order to identify possible cumulative impacts. The EA assesses the environmental impacts associated with the action. The areas of potential impact analyzed are air quality, noise, hazardous materials, wastes and stored fuels, water resources, vegetation and wildlife resources, threatened and endangered species, cultural resources, land use, and socioeconomics. The EA describes the baseline conditions, potential environmental impacts (beneficial and adverse), and possible mitigations of adverse impacts. The Base Closure and Realignment Act specifically exempts this EA from considering the need, purpose, or reason for the realignment from Norton AFB to McChord AFB.

Anonymous (1989). Environmental Assessment of the Relocation of a Weather Training Division to Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC: 88 p.
	The action detailed in this assessment is the relocation of the Weather Training Division and the reallocation of personnel authorizations from Chanute AFB (Rantoul, Illinois) to Keesler AFB (Biloxi, Mississippi) as part of the Secretary of Defense's decision regarding base realignments and closures. Impacts associated with the closure of Chanute AFB and with its ultimate disposal and reuse are being addressed in two separate Environmental Impact Statements (EISs). Impacts associated with relocation of the other training functions currently located at Chanute AFB are also being addressed in separate EAs. The action at Keesler AFB includes the construction of a Weather Training Facility, demolition of two existing buildings at the Weather Training Facility site, installation of the Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) system, and renovations to a dormitory, a dining hall, and a technical training building. This EA primarily addresses the construction phase of the NEXRAD radar antenna. Operational aspects and potential impacts will be further evaluated when a specific antenna site is determined.

Anonymous (1989). Environmental Impact Analysis Process. Environmental Impact Statement for the Closure of Pease Air Force Base, December 89. Draft report, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC: 92 p.
	The action evaluated in this EIS is the halting of operations and removal of equipment and personnel from Pease AFB, New Hampshire. The action involves the deactivation of the 509th Bombardment Wing, which currently operates 21 FB-111 fighter/bomber aircraft and 13 KC-135A tanker aircraft. Provisions of the Base Closure and Realignment Act preclude the examination of any alternatives to closure. Because the Act requires implementation of the closure, 'no action' is not an alternative and is not specifically included. A second EIS will be prepared to cover the final disposition of the base property including potential reuse. Draft Environmental Impact Statement(DEIS).

Anonymous (1989). Proposed White Sands resource management plan amendment/final environmental impact statement for McGregor Range. Las Cruces, NM, United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office: 131 p.
	This proposed White Sands Resource Management Plan Amendment (RMPA) and Final Environmental Impact Statement for McGregor Range describes and analyzes the Proposed Plan for managing the 608,385 acres of withdrawn public land within McGregor Range in Otero County in south-central New Mexico.  The need for this RMPA resulted from the passage of the Military Lands Withdrawal Act in 1986, which withdrew the land for military purposes.  The Proposed Plan addresses to what degree public use of the resources will be allowed and the intensity of BLM resource management on McGregor Range.  The Proposed Plan is a modified version of the Perferred Alternative presented in the Draft. 

Anonymous (1989). Vegetation Resources of Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Adams County, Colorado, Shell Oil Co., Denver CO: 289 p.
	This report presents the results of plant ecological studies conducted at RMA in 1986 and 1987. The major objectives of the vegetation studies were to: identify, map, and describe major and minor plant community types; Evaluate community composition, structure, and successional status; compare the vegetation of the arsenal with two offsite locations - Buckley Air National Guard Base and the Plains Conservation Center. The studies provided information useful for planning habitat enhancement and vegetation activities. Particular emphasis was placed on determining the extent to which the vegetation of RMA has been effected by contamination, physical disturbance, and previous agricultural history of the site. Appendices: species lists, data summaries for onsite and offsite vegetation types. Plates: vegetation map, natural resource areas of special interest

Anonymous (1990). Environmental Assessment of the Realignment of Units at McChord Air Force Base, Washington, Military Airlift Command, Scott AFB, IL: 96 p.
	The action for this Environmental Assessment (EA) consists of the realignment of various aircraft and manpower authorization assets from Norton Air Force Base (AFB), which will be closed, to McChord AFB. The relocation actions will include transfers of personnel authorizations, aircraft, and various other equipment and material. Other, previously programmed force structure changes at McChord AFB also are assessed in order to identify possible cumulative impacts. The EA assesses the environmental impacts associated with the actions. The areas of potential impact analyzed are air quality, noise, hazardous materials, wastes and stored fuels, water resources, vegetation and wildlife resources, threatened and endangered species, cultural resources, land use, and socioeconomics. The EA describes the baseline conditions, potential environmental impacts (beneficial and adverse), and planned mitigations of adverse impacts. The Base Closure and Realignment Act specifically exempts this EA from considering the need, purpose, or reason for the realignment from Norton AFB to McChord AFB.

Anonymous (1990). Resource management plan amendment :  Mcgregor Range, United States Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office: 51 p.
	
Anonymous (1990). Snake River Birds of Prey Area Annual Report, Research and Monitoring. Boise District, Idaho, US Department of the Interior, BLM.
	
Anonymous (1992). Maintenance and Repair of Military Training Lands. Proceedings of LRAM Symposium, Fort Sill.
	
Anonymous (1993). Draft programmatic environmental impact statement for the Joint Training Exercise Roving Sands at Fort Bliss, Texas and New Mexico and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Fort Worth, Texas, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District, United States Forces Command.
	
Anonymous (1993). Final environmental assessment for the Roving Sands 93 Joint Training Exercise at Fort Bliss, Texas and New Mexico and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Fort Worth,  Texas, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District, Geo-Marine, Inc.
	
Anonymous (1993). LCTA data analysis report 1992 data. Eastover, SC, SCARNG Leesburg Training Site.
	
Anonymous (1994). Fall 1994 wildlife and vegetation survey, Norton Air Force Base, California, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN, Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 29 p.
	The fall 1994 wildlife and vegetation surveys were completed October 3-7, 1994, at Norton Air Force Base (AFB), California. Two biologists from CDM Federal Programs, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regional biologist and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) lead biologist conducted the surveys. A habitat assessment of three Installation Restoration Project (IRP) sites at Norton Air Force Base was also completed during the fall survey period. The IRP sites include: Landfill No. 2 (Site 2); the Industrial Wastewater Treatment Plant (IWTP) area; and Former Fire Training Area No. 1 (Site 5). The assessments were designed to qualitatively characterize the sites of concern, identify potential ecological receptors, and provide information for Remedial Design/Remedial Action activities. A Reference Area (Santa Ana River Wash) and the base urban areas were also characterized. The reference area assessment was performed to provide a baseline for comparison with the IRP site habitats. The fall 1994 survey is the second of up to four surveys that may be completed. In order to develop a complete understanding of all plant and animal species using the base, these surveys were planned to be conducted over four seasons. Species composition can vary widely during the course of a year in Southern California, and therefore, seasonal surveys will provide the most complete and reliable data to address changes in habitat structure and wildlife use of the site. Subsequent surveys will focus on seasonal wildlife observations and a spring vegetation survey.

Anonymous (1994). Final programmatic environmental impact statement for the Joint Training Exercise Roving Sands at Fort Bliss, Texas and New Mexico and White Sands Missle Range, New Mexico. Fort Worth, Texas, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District.
	
Anonymous (1994). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1995). Installation Restoration Program. Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection Report. Volume 1. 104th Air Control Squadron Coos Head Air National Guard Station, Oregon Air National Guard Coos Bay, Oregon. Report for Jan 94-Feb 95. Andrews AFB, MD, Air National Guard Readiness Center, Andrews AFB, MD: 201 p.
	The Preliminary Assessment involved interviewing Coos Head employees, (current or former) to determine the extent of use and disposal of hazardous materials and waste. The site investigation involved field investigation of areas determined to be of concern due to use and disposal of hazardous materials wastes. Two areas of concern will further be investigated.

Anonymous (1995). Interim guidelines for the use of domestic sheep for vegetation management in British Columbia -- Revised edition, British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands & Parks, British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food: 49 p.
	Herbicides were the primary tool for vegetation management on forest planning in British Columbia until the late 1980s when alterntive methods of vegetation were investigated in order to reduce future use of herbicides. Sheep were first used experimentally for this purpose. These guidelines provide a description of the general planning process, and then project planning once sheep have been selected for vegetation management. It goes on to describe grazing operations with health management, shepherd training, communication, camp standards, sheep health and welfare, sheep management techniques, dog health, predator interactions, watercourse, monitoring and enforcement.

Anonymous (1995). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Camp Guernsey, Wyoming.  Plot Location, Avian and Small Mammal Surveys, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1995). Land Condition-Trend Analysis at Fort Bliss, Texas 1991-1993, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1995). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report.  Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona 1991-1992, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1995). Manual for the Preparation of Endangered Species Management Plans. Final rept, Science Applications International Corp., Oak Ridge, TN: 120 p.
	Army installations are required by Army regulation to prepare Endangered Species Management Plans (ESMPs) if they contain Federally listed species. This requirement is to ensure full compliance with the Endangered Species Act. This document has been provided to aid installations in meeting the requirement. The objective of this manual is to provide a format for developing management plans for listed and proposed threatened and endangered (TE) species on Army installations, consistent with Species Recovery Plans published by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). It is intended to meet the requirements of the ESA and procedural requirements of the Army's policy and guidance on TE species matters on Army installations. It will also provide uniform and standardized information necessary to manage listed and proposed TE species to ensure that Army actions will not jeopardize the continued existence of such species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of their critical habitat. This manual is not meant to be used in the place of regulations on matters pertaining to TE species. Specifically, Chapter 11 of AR 200-3 should be consulted during the preparation of management plans and other documents pertaining to TE species.

Anonymous (1995). Spring 1995 wildlife and vegetation survey, Norton Air Force Base, California. Oak Ridge , TN, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN, Funder: Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 70 p.
	The objectives of the 1994 and 1995 wildlife and vegetation surveys were to gather data to be used for various applications including: (1) basewide Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) Work Plan (Scoping Document), (2) the completion of the basewide ERA, (3) determining remedial activities, and (4) determining the distribution of state and federal list plant and animal species on Norton AFB. Data gathering included an inventory of plant and animal species present, the identification of potential ecological receptors, mapping of habitats, and constructing the ecological food web present on or near the IRP sites of concern.

Anonymous (1995). Survey for Spiranthes diluvialis.  Fort Carson, Colorado, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1996). Draft environmental impact statement for the Nevada test site and off-site locations in the State of Nevada. Volume 2. Framework for resource management plan, Department of Energy, Las Vegas, NV, Nevada Operations Office: 70 p.
	The purpose of this document is to publicize how the U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office (DOE/NV) proposes to develop and use a Resource Management Plan (RMP) for the Nevada Test Site (NTS) so the public can comment on and assist in: (1) Developing the methods for creating and using the plan; (2) Identifying the values people place on manmade and natural resources found on the NTS; (3) Developing the goals the DOE/NV will use to guide the conservation and use of those resources; (4) Identifying the management actions needed to meet constraints and resource management goals; and (5) Incorporating the principles of ecosystem management into land and resource management on the NTS.

Anonymous (1996). Flora of F.E. Warren Air Force Base.  Laramie County, Wyoming, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1996). Floristic Inventory of Barry M. Goldwater Air Force Range.  Maricopa, Pima and Yuma Counties, Arizona, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1996). Floristic Inventory of Nellis Air Force Base: Area II Clark County, Nevada, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1996). Fort Richardson GIS Data Layer Index, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1997). Enhanced Training in Idaho-Community Report, US DOD DAF.
	
Anonymous (1997). Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Bird and Mammal Surveys at Holston Army Ammunition Plant, Kingsport, Tennessee, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Anonymous (1997). Supplemental environmental assessment for Joint Training Exercise Roving Sands 97, Texas and New Mexico, United States Army Forces Command,  Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District.
	Supplement to the Programmatic environmental
                    impact statement (PEIS) for the Joint Training Exercise Roving Sands at
                    Fort Bliss, Texas and New Mexico, and White Sands Missile Range, New
                    Mexico, prepared in 1994

Anonymous (1998). Enhanced Training in Idaho. Environmental Impact Statement. Volume 1. Final rept, Air Combat Command, Langley AFB, VA: 871 p.
	The ETI Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) evaluates four alternatives to enhance training for aircrews of the 366th Wing based at Mountain Home AFB, ID. The EIS was prepared in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). It also has appendices to meet requirements of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act and its associated regulations for public land withdrawals. The Final EIS includes analyses of the potential environmental consequences of each alternative on airspace, noise, safety, hazardous materials, earth resources, water resources, air quality, biological resources, cultural resources, land use, recreation and visual resources and socioeconomics. The findings indicate that potential environmental impacts from any one of the range development alternatives include increased aircraft-related noise in the expanded portions of the MOAs, decreased aircraft-related noised in portions of existing MOAs, negligible to moderate impacts on habitat for wildlife and vegetation, disturbance to cultural resources eligible or potentially eligible to the National Register of Historic Places (National Register) and possible environmental effects of range alternatives combined with past, present and future projects or actions. The Juniper Butte Alternative was recommended as the Air Force's preferred alternative.

Anonymous (1998). Enhanced Training in Idaho. Environmental Impact Statement. Volume 2. Final rept, Air Combat Command, Langley AFB, VA: 568 p.
	 The ETI Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) evaluates four alternatives to enhance training for aircrews of the 366th Wing based at Mountain Home AFB, ID. The EIS was prepared in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). It also has appendices to meet requirements of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act and its associated regulations for public land withdrawals. The Final EIS includes analyses of the potential environmental consequences of each alternative on airspace, noise, safety, hazardous materials, earls resources, water resources, air quality, biological resources, cultural resources, land use, recreation and visual resources and socioeconomics. The findings indicate that potential environmental impacts from any one of the range development alternatives include increased aircraft-related noise in the expanded portions of the MOAs, decreased aircraft-related noised in portions of existing MOAs, negligible to moderate impacts on habitat for wildlife and vegetation, disturbance to cultural resources eligible or potentially eligible to the National Register of Historic Places (National Register) and possible environmental effects of range alternatives combined with past, present and future projects or actions. The Juniper Butte Alternative was recommended as the Air Force's preferred alternative.

Anonymous (1998). Enhanced Training in Idaho. Environmental Impact Statement. Volume 3. Final rept, Air Combat Command, Langley AFB, VA: 476 p.
	The ETI Final Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) evaluates four alternatives to enhance training for aircrews of the 366th Wing based at Mountain Home AFB, ID. The EIS was prepared in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). It also has appendices to meet requirements of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act and its associated regulations for public land withdrawals. The Final EIS includes analyses of the potential environmental consequences of each alternative on airspace, noise, safety, hazardous materials, earth resources, water resources, air quality, biological resources, cultural resources, land use, recreation and visual resources and socioeconomics. The findings indicate that potential environmental impacts from any one of the range development alternatives include increased aircraft-related noise in the expanded Portions of the MOAs, decreased aircraft-related noised in Portions of existing MOAs, negligible to moderate impacts on habitat for wildlife and vegetation, disturbance to cultural resources eligible or potentially eligible to the National Register of Historic Places (National Register) and possible environmental effects of range alternatives combined with past, present and future projects or actions. The Juniper Butte Alternative was recommended as the Air Force's preferred alternative.

Anonymous (1998). McGregor range land withdrawal, Fort Bliss, Otera County, New Mexico, Department of the Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth, Texas: 586 p.
	The renewal of the withdrawal of land supporting the military mission of the U.S. Army with respect to the McGregor Range at Fort Bliss, located in southern New Mexico, is proposed. 609,935-acre McGregor Range has supported the mission of Fort Bliss since the 1940s. The range encompasses 609,385 acres of public domain lands, 71,083 acres held in fee ownership by the Army, and 1,010 acres of previously state-owned lands transferred to the Bureau of Land Management after 1986. The range also includes 18,004 acres of U.S. Forest Service lands used by the Army in accordance with a memorandum of understanding between the Forest Service and the Army. In 1986, public lands, comprising  McGregor Range were withdrawn from the public domain for a period of 15 years. This withdrawal expires November 6, 2001. The range is used primarily for training in intercepting and destroying    missiles and aircraft in flight. Systems used at the range include the Patriot missile system, Avenger, Stinger, Bradley, Linebacker, and other advanced weapons systems. The Army's application for renewal of the McGregor Range withdrawal for military use would extend the withdrawal through the year 2051. Six alternatives, including a No Action Alternative (Alternative 5), are considered in this draft EIS. 
      Under the Army's proposed action (Alternative 1), the boundaries of the range would be coterminous with those of the 1986 withdrawal. Under Alternative 2, only the Tularosa Basin and Otero Mesa portions of the range, encompassing 569,395 acres, would be withdrawn for continued military use, while the Sacramento Mountains foothills portion of the range, including the Culp Canyon Wilderness Study Area, would return to the public domain. Under Alternative 3, only the 429,395-acre Tularosa Basin portion of the range would be withdrawn, while the Otero Mesa and Sacramento Mountains foothills would be returned to the public domain. Under Alternative 4, only the 365,395-acre portion of the Tularosa Basin south of New Mexico Highway 506 would be withdrawn.  Under Alternative 6, the Congress would establish a national   conservation area on Otero Mesa and designate Culp Canyon as a wilderness area; Otero Mesa and the Sacramento Mountains foothills portion of the range would be returned to the public domain. POSITIVE IMPACTS: The renewal of the land withdrawal would provide sufficient space to conduct real-world military training, maintaining quality military and operational readiness standards, supporting military education and training programs, and allowing joint Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine training exercises. The procurement activities at the fort would continue to support the local economy. NEGATIVE IMPACTS: Civil aircraft would continue to be prohibited from traversing portions of the range with the restricted area was activated. Missile firings and use of off-road   vehicles during training operations would disturb soils and vegetation and the associated wildlife habitat as well as cultural resource sites. Noise and visual intrusions associated with military operations would continue. Increases in the use of hazardous materials and items of special concern could result from ongoing and future military uses as well as nonmilitary activities that occur on the withdrawn lands. LEGAL MANDATES: Engle Act of 1958 (43 U.S.C. 155 et seq.), Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), and Military Lands   Withdrawal Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-606).

Anonymous (1999). Programmatic environmental assessment for Joint Exercise Roving Sands, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Fort Worth District, Army Forces Command.
	
Anonymous (2000). Cold War Resources Inventory: An Inventory and Evaluation of Select Cold War Properties Under Criteria Consideration G, United States Army Alaska (Fort Richardson, Fort Wainwright, Fort Greeley).
	
Anonymous (2001). Application and assessment of species at risk conservation approaches at fort bliss military reservation and white sands missile range, New Mexico and Texas. The Wildlife Society 2001 Conference, Reno/Tahoe, NV (USA), 25-29 Sep 2001, The Wildlife Society.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Cultural Resources Management Plan 2000-2004, Fort Richardson, Alaska, U.S. Army Alaska.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Cultural Resources Management Plan 2001-2005, U.S. Army Alaska, Fort Wainwright and Fort Greely, Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation Office of History and Archaeology, Anchorage, Alaska.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natual Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, Lander Local Training Area, Wyoming Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natual Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, Lovell Local Training Area, Wyoming Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natual Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, Sheridan Local Training Area, Wyoming Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, Camp Guernsey, Wyoming Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, Sheridan Local Training Area, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment.  Camp Guernsey, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment.  Lander Local Training Area, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment.  Lovell Local Training Area, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). Land Condition Trend Analysis Installation Report.  Florence Military Reservation, Arizona Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2001). McGregor Range resource management plan amendment and environmental impact statement.  Scoping notice, Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office.
	The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Las Cruces Field Office, is preparing a resource management plan amendment (RMPA) and environmental impact statement (EIS) to address BLM's management of the public land withdrawn for military use within McGregor Range in southern Otero County, New Mexico. This notice is beginning the planning process by requesting your comments on the scope of the McGregor Range RMPA/EIS

Anonymous (2001). Oahu Training Areas - Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan 2002-2006 and Environmental Assessment, 25th Infantry Division (Light) and U.S. Army, Hawaii.
	
Anonymous (2003). Land Condition Trend Analysis, Program Support for the Missouri Army National Guard.
	
Anonymous (2003). Survey of Selected Insect Taxa of Fort Sill, Comanche County, Oklahoma.
	
Applegate, J. R. and J. Steinman (2005). "A comparison of tree health among forest types and conditions at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia." Southern Journal of Applied Forestry 29(3): 143-147.
	Fort A.P. Hill's Range and Training Land Assessments (RTLA) program initiated long-term monitoring of installation forests to assess forest health and ensure optimal sustainability of forest resources for military training activities. A subset of forest health indicators developed by the USDA Forest Service Forest Health Monitoring (FHM) and Forest Inventory and Analysis programs were used to assess forest health on Army training lands at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia. Indicators of tree crown condition and tree damage condition were taken in forested areas where military training occurs, “tactical concealment areas (TCAs),” and on continuous forest monitoring (CFM) plots established in control stands where military training is absent. A higher percent of trees with high crown dieback, low crown density, and multiple types of stem damage were observed within TCAs than on CFM plots. The results are indicative of possible long-term changes to forest health from military training activities. The FHM forest health indicators proved to be an effective and useful approach to assess tree conditions. 

Armstrong, J., J. R. McDermott, et al. (2000). "The U.S. Air Force embraces ecosystem management through a landscape assessment in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains." Federal Facilities Environmental Journal 11(3): 125-134.
	Through a cooperative partnership of several government agencies, conservation organizations, and interested private citizens, the Air Force Academy is working in cooperation with the Colorado Natural Heritage Program to complete a landscape analysis of a portion of the Colorado Front Range. The project area includes the Monument Creek Watershed, comprising all Air Force Academy lands and surrounding lands of the Rampart Range, from the confluence of Monument Creek at Fountain Creek north to the Palmer Divide and from the Rampart Range Road east to the Monument Creek watershed boundary. Desired future conditions as well as management strategies to achieve them will be developed through this collaborative partnership planning process. When completed in 2001, the results of this project will represent an important contribution to Air Force and Department of Defense continuing efforts to implement ecosystem-based natural and cultural resources management strategies on military lands. 

Arnold, J. R. and R. Wiener (1989). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and Natural Resources Management on Army Installations 1941-1987. Fort Belvoir, VA, Engineering and Housing Support Center and Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers: 135 p.
	This study shows the evolution of the Army Corps
of Engineers' responsibilities for the natural
environment on Army bases . Reflecting both wartime
urgencies and peacetime concerns, The U .S . Army Corps
of Engineers and Natural Resources Management on Army
Installations, 1941-1987 is a comprehensive overview of
the problems the Corps' natural resources managers
faced on Army bases both domestic and overseas during
those years . Their concerns included such topics as
soil conservation during the emergencies of World War
II and the impact of the environmental movement on Army
environmental planners in more recent times .
Today's Army engineers facing multiple questions
in the course of their work on installations should
find this retrospective analysis useful . The authors,
James Arnold and Roberta Wiener, break new ground in
tracing the history of environmental work in the
context of the military and civilian pressures
surrounding the physical development and maintenance of
bases .

Autrey, B. C. (1997). Herpetofaunal assemblages of four vegetation types in the Caddo Lake area of Northeast Texas, Stephen F. Austin State University 96 p.
	The Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant (LHAAP) is a military facility in Harrison County, Texas.  The herpetofauna of the LHAAP were surveyed in each of 4 habitat types.  i.e., bottomland hardwood, sideslope hardwood, mixed pine-hardwood.  and pure pine.  During 1996 and 1997, 2,028 individual amphibians of 17 species and 1,397 individual reptiles of 28 species were recorded.  Species richness values for the bottomland hardwood, sideslope hardwood, mixed pine-hardwood, and pure pine areas were 38, 35, 28, and 28, respectively, and individual abundance values were 1,188, 1,373, 526, and 338, respectively.  A Monte Carlo analysis showed that the species composition among the 4 vegetation types differed significantly (P = 0.005).  Differences in herpetofaunal assemblages seemed to be related to the moisture gradient across the vegetation types.  Because only 46.7% of the species were found in every habitat type, future management practices on LHAAP should attempt to maintain a diversity of vegetation communities.

Aycrigg, J. L., S. J. Harper, et al. (2004). Simulating land use alternatives and their impacts on a desert tortoise population in the Mojave Desert, California. Landscape simulation modeling: A spatially explicit, dynamic approach. R. Costanza and A. Voinov. New York Springer-Verlag New York Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY, 10010-7858: 249-273.
	
Ayers, P. D. (1994). "Environmental-Damage from Tracked Vehicle Operation." Journal of Terramechanics 31(3): 173-183.
	Soil surface forces resulting from traffic from tracked vehicles can cause environmental damage by decreasing plant development and increasing erosion. This paper investigates the soil surface disturbance from tracked vehicle operation. Sharp turns (lower turning radius) from M113 operation produce increased disturbed widths and more severe vegetation damage, The pad-load ratio for the M113 track shoe was determined at various loads. The soil rut produced from tracked vehicle operation was determined at various driving modes (straight, smooth turn, sharp turn). The width and depth of track rut and height of soil piled increased when the tracked vehicle negotiated a sharp turn. The results of this study indicate for the soil conditions tested, the width of disturbance is dependent on the operating characteristics of the vehicle. A vehicle conducting sharp turns will disturb a larger width of soil than a vehicle travelling straight or conducting smooth turns. (Author abstract) [References: 14]

Ayers, P. D., A. B. Anderson, et al. (2005). "Analysis of vehicle use patterns during field training exercises to identify potential roads." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 321-338.
	In October of 2001, global positioning system (GPS) - based vehicle tracking systems (VTS) were placed on 20 vehicles involved in an 8-day field training exercise at Yakima Training Center, Washington. Based on the GPS data, an analysis of the potential for identifying new roads was conducted. Analysis of vehicle use patterns within selected 25-m grids was utilized to identify new formed or previously unidentified roads in the training area. The factors used to determine the existence of these new roads were (1) if a vehicle actually passed through the grid, (2) the number of vehicles following the same trail segment, (3) if the vehicles passed on different days, (4) if the vehicles were in different troops, and (5) if the vehicles traveled in both directions. A site visit was conducted and confirmed the existence of new roads along segments that met all five criteria levels. Military road class 4 and 5 roads were identified at sites meeting all five criteria. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ayers, P. D., V. E. Diersing, et al. (1990). Soil compaction from military vehicles. Amer. Soc. of Agricultural Engineers meeting presentation, St. Joseph, MI, Unpublished.
	
Bagley, C. (1998). Cold War Resources Inventory United States Army Alaska, Ft. Richardson, Wainwright and Greely, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bagley, C. (1998). Cold War Resources Inventory United States Army Alaska: Fort Richardson Fort Wainwright Fort Greely, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bagley, C. (1998). Integrated Training Area Management (ITAM) Related Geographic Information System (GIS) Support for the U.S. Army Environmental Center, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bagley, C., P. Nissen, et al. (1996). Tracked Vehicle impacts on soils and vegetation at Yakima Training Center, Washington. 5th Annual LRAM/ITAM Workshop: Utilizing ITAM as a Tool for Integrating Training and Land Management, Fort McCoy and UWSP Extension.
	
Bagley, C. F., C. M. Bern, et al. (1995). Plant Community Mapping and Digital Data Development -- Zones 1&2 Letterkenny Army Depot, Pennsylvania, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bak, J., S. Sekscienski, et al. (2002). Installation Summaries from the FY 2000 Survey of Threatened and Endangered Species on Army Lands. Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland 21010-5401, U.S. Army Environmental Center.
	The Army’s Environmental Quality Report
(EQR) is one of the means by which
installations report annually to Army
Headquarters (HQDA) on a variety of natural
resource and environmental issues. This
report (part of a continuing series)
summarizes data from a variety of sources
including the Threatened and Endangered
Species portion of the FY 2000 EQR.
Installation-level data provides information
on species that occur on or contiguous to
each installation, while species-level data
lists all installations on which each species
occurs. Corresponding information on
Federal status, critical habitat, informal
consultations with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS), and Biological Opinions
rendered by USFWS are provided.

Bak, J. M., K. G. Boykin, et al. (2001). "Distribution of wintering Ferruginous Hawks (Buteo regalis) in relation to black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies in southern New Mexico and northern Chihuahua." Journal of Raptor Research 35(2): 124-129.
	We studied winter habitat use of Ferruginous Hawks (Buteo regalis) from November 1999-February 2000 in southern New Mexico and northern Mexico by comparing vegetation in New Mexico among three potential hawk habitat types; occupied black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies (N = 13), areas without prairie dogs that had historical records of occurrence (N = 7), and general grassland areas (N = 8). In Mexico, we recorded habitat use of hawks observed during driving surveys. Overall, 20 of 22 Ferruginous Hawks observed throughout the study were associated with occupied black-tailed prairie dog colonies. In New Mexico, we found the three site types were similar in vegetation composition and structure and differed only in the presence or absence of black-tailed prairie dogs; however, there were differences in the vegetation between haw use areas in Mexico. Mexico sites had intensive grazing and less vegetation cover and overall shorter vegetation. Vegetation composition and structure did not seem to influence winter habitat selection in Ferruginous Hawks; instead, it was directly correlated with occupied black-tailed prairie dog colonies.

Balbach, H. E. (1996). Military Land Management Research Tools: An Annotated Bibliography. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 146 p.
	Management of U.S. Army training lands is accomplished by two types of personnel, the active land manager, who is most focused on methods for identification and remediation of the environmental consequences of supporting the military training and testing mission, and the researcher, who develops management tools and techniques to better assist the land manager. This bibliography is arranged so papers and reports believed most relevant to the active land manager are in one section of each topic area, and those of more interest and value to the researcher are in a separate section. The bibliography covers these 14 topic areas: (1) Impacts of Military Training, (2) Measurement and Characterization of Vegetation, (3) Measurement and Characterization of Wildlife, (4) Characterization of Soils, Erosion, and Erosion Protection, (5) Land Management Principles, (6) The Land Condition Trend Analysis Process, (7) Training Related Noise Management, (8) Characterization and Management of Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Species, (9) Survey and Management of Cultural Resources, (10) Assessment of Environmental Impact for NEPA Compliance, (11) Environmental Modeling in Land Management Applications and Related Geographic Information System Technology, (12) Environmental Education and Awareness, (13) Land Contamination as Related to Training and Testing Activities, and (14) Management of Fugitive Dust.

Balbach, H. E. and W. D. Goran (2003). The quest for measures of site condition in a military installation context. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meetiing Abstracts.
	
Bandy, J. T. and R. J. Scholze (1983). Distribution of water use at representative fixed Army installations. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 107 p.
	
Barber, D. R. and T. E. Martin (1997). "Influence of alternate host densities on brown-headed Cowbird parasitism rates in black-capped Vireos." Condor 99(3): 595-604.
	Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) parasitism is thought to be partly influenced by density of the host species, although tests of host density are relatively rare. We examined parasitism rates relative to the density of individual host species and densities of coexisting host species. We monitored 392 nests among coexisting host species and measured their densities among six habitats on Fort Hood Military Reservation, Texas during 1991-1992 to test the hypothesis that coexisting species affect parasitism rates in the endangered Black-capped Vireo (Vireo atricapillus). Black-capped Vireos and White-eyed Vireos (V. griseus) suffered three to four times higher cowbird parasitism than Northern Cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) or Painted Buntings (Passerina ciris). After controlling for removal of female cowbirds, which has been conducted on the study site since 1988, parasitism rates in Black-capped Vireos were positively correlated with cumulative host density in general, and Northern Cardinal density in particular. Only density of Northern Cardinals explained a significant amount of variation in parasitism rates in Black-capped Vireos among sites. We suggest that cowbirds may be attracted to conspicuous species, such as cardinals, and that high densities of such species may negatively affect coexisting species by increasing probabilities of being parasitized. Vireo nests were characterized by less nest concealment, greater canopy cover, and more stems than other species. However nest site and vegetation characteristics did not differ between parasitized and unparasitized nests for any species, suggesting habitat was unimportant to parasitism.

Barringer, D. S. (1997). Impacts caused by military vehicular tracking on the soils and vegetation of the Yakima Training Center. Fort Collins, CO, Colorado State University.
	
Bartsch, K. P., H. Van Miegroet, et al. (2002). "Using empirical erosion models and GIS to determine erosion risk at Camp Williams, Utah." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 57(1): 29-37.
	Soil erosion was assessed at Camp Williams Army National Guard Training Facility by creating an erosion risk classification map. The map was created by applying empirical erosion models including the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) with GIS and then grouping the quantitative erosion estimates into erosion risk classes. The assessment indicated where problem areas occurred and showed relative erosion risk, but its lack of quantitative accuracy should be noted. Soil erosion does not appear to be a problem for most of the facility except in areas with little or no protective vegetation such as roads. Analysis of each factor showed that the cover-management factor (C) contributed most of the variability to the erosion risk classification map. A comparison of three GIS derived factors (K, S, and C) to factors derived from field data indicated mixed results for accuracy.  [References: 43] 43

Baskaran, L., V. H. Dale, et al. (2004). RSim: A regional simulation to explore impacts of resource use and constraints. 89th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America - Lessons of Lewis and Clark: Ecological Exploration of Inhabited Landscapes, Portland, OR, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	
Beavers, A., R. Burgan, et al. (1999). Analysis of Fire Management Concerns at Makua Millitary Reservation. Fort Collins, CO, Center for Ecological Mangement of Military Lands, Colorado State University: 65 p.
	Makua Military Reservation (MMR) is located on 4190 acres on the northwest leeward
side of Oahu, Hawaii. The reservation is surrounded on the north, east, and south by high,
precipitous valley walls and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Surrounding cliffs reach heights
of 2100 to 2900 feet. Numerous threatened and endangered plant and animal species reside on
these cliffs.

MMR has been used since World War II as a live-fire training range by all branches of
the military. This activity has resulted in the continuous introduction of a large number of
ignition sources. When combined with the invasion of exotic species that are well adapted to the
effects of burning, a highly fire prone environment was produced. A road network designed to
contain fires that started on the range and a fire danger rating system were emplaced in the
1980’s to reduce the number and extent of fires within the valley.

During the past decade a series of large fires, notably in 1995 and 1998, negatively
impacted a portion of the native habitat and endangered species that occupy the high elevation
ridges (map 1). In September 1998, Earth Justice Legal Defense Fund threatened to sue both the
Army and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) unless the Army initiated consultations
with the USFWS in accordance with section 7 of the Endangered Species Act within 60 days.
Shortly thereafter, an errant mortar round started a fire that burned 800 acres outside of the south
firebreak road. The commanding general of the U.S Army Hawaii Garrison shut down the range
until Section 7 consultations are completed.

Part of the mitigation plan resulting from these consultations require the Army to provide
a more effective wildfire management program. This report provides information about MMR’s
fire history, fuels, potential fire behavior, and fuel modification recommendations. Other
information necessary for achieving more precise fire behavior prediction capabilities is being
compiled by the U.S. Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station. The additions include
high-resolution weather modeling and fire simulations using the FARSITE Fire Area Simulator.
Though these supplements will provide further insights into fire behavior, they are not essential
to fire prediction or fire control. These additions will be addressed in a separate report to be
submitted by the Forest Service.

Beavers, A. M. (2001). Creation and Validation of a Custom Fuel Model Representing Mature Panicum maximum (Guinea Grass) in Hawaii. Fort Collins, Colorado, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University: 78 p.
	no abstract 

Beavers, A. M. (2001). Wildland Fire Risk and Management on West and South Ranges, Schofield Barracks, Oahu. Fort Collins, Colorado, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands; Colorado State University: 71.
	no abstract

Beavers, A. M. (2003). Literature Review of Fire Effects on Northeastern Grasslands.
	
Beavers, A. M. and R. E. Burgan (2002). Analysis of Fire History and Management Concerns at Pohakuloa Training Area. Fort Collins, CO, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University: 65 p.
	no abstract 

Bednar, A. J., D. B. Gent, et al. (2004). "Mechanisms of thorium migration in a semiarid soil." Journal of Environmental Quality 33(6): 2070-2077.
	Thorium concentrations at Kirtland Air Force Base training sites in Albuquerque, NM, have been previously described; however, the mechanisms of thorium migration were not fully understood. This work describes the processes affecting thorium mobility in this semi-arid soil, which has implications for future remedial action. Aqueous extraction and filtration experiments have demonstrated the colloidal nature of thorium in the soil, due in part to the low solubility of thorium oxide. Colloidal material was defined as that removed by a 0.22-mum or smaller filter after being filtered to nominally dissolved size (0.45 mum). Additionally, association of thorium with natural organic matter is suggested by micro- and ultrafiltration methods, and electrokinetic data, which indicate thorium migration as a negatively charged particle or anionic complex with organic matter. Soil fractionation and digestion experiments show a bimodal distribution of thorium in the largest and smallest size fractions, most likely associated with detrital plant material and inorganic oxide particles, respectively. Plant uptake studies suggest this could also be a mode of thorium migration as plants grown in thorium-containing soil had a higher thorium concentration than those in control soils. Soil erosion laboratory experiments with wind and surface water overflow were performed to determine bulk soil material movement as a possible mechanism of mobility. Information from these experiments is being used to determine viable soil stabilization techniques at the site to maintain a usable training facility with minimal environmental impact.

Bednar, A. J., S. L. Larson, et al. (2003). Mobility and containment of thorium-232 in soil at a military training site. 226th ACS (American Chemical Society) National Meeting, New York, NY, USA, Abstracts of Papers American Chemical Society.
	
Bekker, M. G. (1980). Tracked vehicles - terrain damage and economy. Society of Automotive Engineers Technical Paper Series 800953, Warrendale, PA.
	
Belnap, J., K. T. Harper, et al. (1994). "Surface Disturbance of Cryptobiotic Soil Crusts - Nitrogenase Activity, Chlorophyll Content, and Chlorophyll Degradation." Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation 8(1): 1-8.
	Cryptobiotic soil crusts are an important component of semiarid and arid ecosystems. An important role of these crusts is the contribution of fixed nitrogen to cold-desert ecosystems. This study examines the residual effects of various intensities and combinations of different surface disturbances (raking, scalping, and tracked vehicles) on nitrogenase activity, chlorophyll content, and chlorophyll degradation in these soil crusts. Nine months after disturbance chlorophyll content of disturbed soils was not statistically different from undisturbed controls, except in the scalped treatments, indicating recovery of this characteristic is fairly quick unless surface material is removed Differences in chlorophyll degradation among treatments were not statistically significant. However, nitrogenase activity in all treatments showed tremendous reductions, ranging from 77-97%, when compared to the control, indicating this characteristic is slow to recover. Consequently, assessment of crustal recovery, from disturbance must include not only visual and biomass characteristics but other physiological measurements as well. Areas dominated by these crusts should be managed conservatively until the implications of crustal disturbance is better understood.

Belnap, J., J. H. Kaltenecker, et al. (2001). Biological Soil Crusts: Ecology and Management. Denver, CO, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management: 118 p.
	no abstract

Belnap, J. and S. D. Warren (2002). "Patton's tracks in the Mojave Desert, USA: An ecological legacy." Arid Land Research & Management 16(3): 245-258.
	Recovery of soil properties from World War II-era military training exercises in the Mojave Desert was measured approximately, 55 rears following disturbance. Tracks front military vehicles were still risible, particularly in areas of desert pavement. Soil penetrability was much lower in risible tracks than outside the tracks. Soils in tracks had fewer rocks in the top 10 cm of the soil profile than adjacent untracked soils. Larger particles ( > 4.8 mm) formed a moderately well-developed pavement outside of the tracks, while smaller, loose particles (less than or equal to4.8 mm) dominated the surface of the tracks. The time required to restore the desert pavement is likely to he measured in centuries. Based on biomass estimates, the cyanobacterial component of biological soil crusts had recovered 46 65% in tracks, compared to outside the tracks. Overall recovery of lichen cover hers been much slower. Under plant canopies, corer of Collema tenax was not significantly different between areas inside and outside the tracks; however, recovery of Canapyrenium squamulosum was only 36%. In plant interspaces with less favorable moisture and temperature conditions, C. tenax showed a 6% recovery and C. squamulosum a 3% recovery. Assuming recover, of the biological soil crust is linear, and complete only when the most sensitive species (C. squamulosum) has fully recovered in the most limiting microhabitats (plant into-spaces), it may require almost two millennia for full recovery of these areas. [References: 59] 59

Bennett, H. H., Jr., J. E. Simms, et al. (2005). Gopher tortoise nest detection at Camp Shelby, Mississippi, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center: 58 p.
	Declining populations of the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) have prompted management efforts including methods to increase egg clutch survival. Estimates are that as many as 88 percent of all clutches are being de-stroyed by predation. The most popular protection method has been to locate the clutch and protect it from predation with a metal cage or hardware screen. Locating the clutch without damaging or extensively disturbing the eggs requires highly skilled personnel, and traditional techniques for nest location appear to be unusable for populations in western areas where soils contain a higher clay fraction. The analysis reported here focused on the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR), multi-frequency frequency domain electromagnetism, shallow seismic reflection, electrical resistivity, mag-netic field gradient, and thermal imaging for nest detection. Though all instrumentation methods have proven worth within their dedicated disciplines, none were truly successful at locating G. polyphemus clutches in the field in Southern Mississippi. GPR appeared the most viable, though the particular methods used could not be called successful in this trial. Thus, reliance on any of these techniques is not recommended for critical surveys intended to accurately locate tortoise nests and egg clutches.

Berlinger, B. P. and L. R. Cammack (1990). "Revegetating Rangelands after Army Maneuvers." Rangelands 12(1): 17-20.
	U.S. Army training maneuvers with tracked vehicles (M-60 tanks and amored personnel carriers) destroy various amounts of vegetation.  The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) implemented a study to the Army in determining: (1) the revegation treatments most effective in accelerating plant development after tracked vehicle maneuvers and (2) if the effectiveness of the revegetation treatments depended on the degree of vegatative cover destruction.

Bern, C. (1998). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Field Report Yakima Training Center Washington 1997, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. (1999). First-Year Effects on Vegetation and Soils of the CMTC-Live Fire Exercise at Grafenwoehr Training Area, Germany, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. (1999). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report 1992-1997 Camp Roberts California National Guard, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. (1999). Orchard Training Area Land Condition-Trend Analysis Data Report 1989-1997, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. (2000). Lepidium papilliferum, slickspot peppergrass, Data Analysis, 1991-1998.
	
Bern, C. (2000). Orchard Training Area Land Condition-Trend Analysis Data Report 1989-1998.
	
Bern, C. (2001). Land Condition Trend Analysis Installation Report.  Camp Navajo, Arizona Army National Guard.
	
Bern, C. (2001). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report 1992-1997 Camp San Luis Obispo, California National Guard.
	
Bern, C. and T. Schick (1997). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Field and Data Analysis Report Stewart River Local Training Area, Alaska Army National Guard, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (1991). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report.  Pohakuloa Training Area, Hawaii, 1989., Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (1995). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report, Yuma Proving Ground, AZ, 1991-1992. Fort Collins, Co, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University.
	
Bern, C. M. (1995). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Summary of Vegetation Monitoring Pohakuloa Training Area, Hawaii 1989-1993, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (1996). Land Condition-Trend Analysis 1996 Field Report.  Yakima Training Center, Washington, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (1996). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Installation Report.  Yakima Training Center, Washington.  1989-1994, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (1999). Orchard Training Area Land Condition-Trend Analysis Data Report, 1989-1997. Fort Collins, Colorado, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (2000). Orchard Training Area Land Condition-Trend Analysis Data Report, 1989-1998. Fort Collins, Colorado, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. (2001). Orchard Training Area - Land Condition Trend Analysis Data Report, 1989-2000.
	
Bern, C. M. (2002). Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) II Survey.
	
Bern, C. M. (2002). Orchard Training Area Land Condition-Trend Analysis Data Report, 1989-2001, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Bern, C. M. and R. Shaw (1993). Maintenance and Repair of Military Training Lands. A National Symposium, Fort Collins, CO, Center for the Ecological Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University.
	
Bhat, S. (2005). Ecohydrological study of watersheds within the military installation in Fort Benning, Georgia, The University of Florida: 127 p.
	Relationships among watershed physical characteristics and water quality parameters were explored for seven watersheds in Fort Benning, Georgia, using statistical analyses to identify chemical indicators of ecological changes. Correlations were identified among the indicators and watershed physical characteristics. Regression results suggested that pH, chloride, total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total organic carbon, and total suspended solids are useful indicators of watershed physical characteristics that are susceptible to perturbations.

The magnitude, frequency, duration, timing, and rate of change of hydrologic conditions regulate ecological processes in aquatic ecosystems. Analysis of 26 non-redundant hydrologic indices showed undisturbed watershed produced higher magnitude and more frequent low- and high-flows as compared to the disturbed watershed. Eighteen storm-based indices, grouped into four flow components, were proposed to statistically characterize hydrologic variation among different watersheds. Results showed that these storm-based indices might be used as surrogates to the indices derived from long-term data. Statistical analysis showed that the watershed physical characteristics such as military training land, road density, and the number of roads crossing streams predicted hydrologic indices such as storm-based baseflow index, bankfull discharge, response lag, and time of rise well.

Riparian vegetation has an important role in altering water quality in the forested watersheds. The leaching of organic or mineral products on the forest floor provides potential additional effects on water quality. In these areas, nutrients are released into the fresh water systems due to the leaching and decomposition of vegetation litter. The release of nutrients from plant litters prior to decomposition may be an important aspect of characterizing stream water quality. To explore nitrogen leaching in a riparian area during litterfall, Riparian Ecosystem Management Model developed by USDA-ARS has been applied. The simulated total Kjeldahl nitrogen masses in the study watershed were close to the observed values. The model effectively captured the trends of litter mass accumulation in the riparian area and subsequent high concentrations and masses during those periods.

Bhat, S., J. M. Jacobs, et al. (2006). "Relationships between stream water chemistry and military land use in forested watersheds in Fort Benning, Georgia." Ecological Indicators 6(2): 458-466.
	Within a military land activity context, relationships between stream water chemistry and watershed land use, topography and vegetation were explored at the Fort Benning Military Installation, Georgia. Water quality parameters, including pH, temperature, conductivity, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, total organic carbon, chloride, and total suspended solids, were routinely measured in seven watersheds from October 2001 to September 2003. Military land use was categorized by the bare ground extent, road network, and designated military zones in each watershed as well as by soil characteristics and forest type. Natural watershed variables, area and soil texture, influenced the stream water pH and total phosphorus, respectively. The stream water total phosphorus, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total organic carbon, and total suspended solids were well predicted by at least one aspect of military management as an explanatory variable. Stream water total Kjeldahl nitrogen and total organic carbon were negatively correlated with military land extent. While the military land extent did not show significant relationships with either total phosphorus or chloride, the road network used to support military training had significant relationships with both total phosphorus and chloride.

Biggs, T. H. (1997). Fire Frequency, Nutrient Concentrations and Distributions, and (Delta)(13)C of Soil Organic Matter and Plants in a Southeastern Arizona Grassland (Carbon-13, Prosopis Velentina), The University of Arizona: 193 p.
	Over the past century, woody plants and shrubs have increased in abundance at the expense of grasslands in many semiarid regions.  The availability and concentrations of nutrients influence the relative success of plants, but the effects of fire frequency on soil nutrients is unknown for semiarid grasslands.  On the gunnery ranges of Fort Huachuca in southeastern Arizona, study sites were established to examine the effects of fire frequency on soil biogeochemistry, plant biochemistry, and $delta^(13)$C values in soil organic matter (SOM).  The sites were on homogeneous granitic alluvium where wildfire frequency history is known from 1973 to present and no cattle grazing has occurred in recent decades.  Subplots represent fire frequencies of no burns, 3 fires per decade, and 5 fires per decade.  The "no burn" plot has abundant C$_3$ Prosopis velentina (mesquite) trees, whereas the burned plots are open C$_4$-dominated grasslands with scattered mesquite trees.  Prosopis trees have altered SOM pools by the concentration of plant nutrients and the addition of isotopically light shrub litter.  Frequent fires have altered the basic geochemistry and nutrient availabilities of the soil, and the changes appear to be significant enough to affect plant growth.  Soil pH increases with burning frequency, and TOC, total nitrogen, and plant-available phosphorus show significant increases on the infrequently burned plot.  Burning is advantageous for preservation or restoration of grasslands, as total living grass biomass is greater on the two burned plots.  Root biomass 11 is significantly lower on the "frequently burned" plot.  Concentrations of the key nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus are reduced in plants on the burned sites compared to plants on the unburned site.  Fires help re-distribute nutrients but evidence of nutrient concentrations and $delta^(13)$C values are retained in SOM for many decades.  Estimates of bulk carbon turnover rates range from 112 to 504 years.  Evidence for modern C$_3$ shrub expansion is found in the shift of SOM $delta^(13)$C values from values characteristic of C$_4$ grasses to C$_3$ shrubs in surface soil layers.  $delta^(13)C_(SOM)$ values indicate that the Holocene and Late Pleistocene were dominated by C$_4$ grasslands, and the pre-Late Pleistocene vegetation was a C$_4$-grass savanna with abundant C$_3$ plants.

Bilodeau, R. J., J. S. Fehmi, et al. (2005). Application of the TerreSIM Model to a training area landscape at Fort Bliss, TX, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 79 p.
	The Terrestrial Ecosystem Simulation Model (TerreSIM) is a computer simulation model designed to be a useful evaluation and planning tool for investigating ecological responses over time to a wide variety of natural and anthropogenic stressors on spatial scales ranging from small plots to large landscapes and watersheds. TerreSIM is the next
generation of modeling efforts at MFG, Inc, built upon general principles of ecology. This document presents the results of an application of the TerreSIM model to a 94 km2 training area landscape in the north central part of Fort Bliss. Results of these simulations indicate that fire, cattle grazing, and military training all affect vegetation dynamics on this
landscape, but that the relative importance of each factor is quite different. Model simulations indicate that the landscape can support moderate grazing by cattle and military training for at least 20 years, provided that at least average precipitation is received. TerreSIM provides the tool for Fort Bliss land managers to develop appropriate management options under changing climatic, pyric, and successional conditions.

Block, P. (1997). Land Condition-Trend Analysis at Limestone Hills Training Area & Fort William Henry Harrison, Montana Army National Guard, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Block, P. (1997). Land Condition-Trend Analysis at Schofield Barracks & Makua Valley, 1996, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Block, P. (1998). Land Condition-Trend Analysis at Camp Guernsey Wyoming 1997, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Block, P. (1998). LCTA at Camp Beauregard LA for LA ARNG, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Block, P. (2000). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Camp Beauregard & Camp Villere, Louisiana 1998-1999, Louisiana Army National Guard.
	
Block, P. (2001). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Camp Beauregard & Camp Villere, Louisiana 1998, 1999, & 2000 for the Louisiana Army National Guard - Data Analysis and Trend Summaries.
	
Block, P. (2002). Land Condition - Trend Analysis at Camp Blanding Training Site, Florida 1994-2001 Data Analysis and Trend Summaries.
	
Block, P. R. (1994). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Fort Huachuca, Arizona 1992-1993, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Block, P. R. (2001). Land Condition Trend Analysis at Camp Blanding Training Site, Florida 1994-2000 for the Florida Army National Guard (Data Analysis and Trend Summaries).
	
Block, P. R. (2003). Land Condition - Trend Analysis at Camp Blanding Training Site, Florida 1994-2002, Data Analysis and Trend Summaries.
	
Böhm, A. (2003). "Soil erosion and erosion protection measures on military lands.  Case study at Combat Maneuver Training Center Hohenfels, Germany." Physiogeographica 31.
	
Boice, L. (1998). Balancing conservation requirements and military mission needs:  Ecosystem management in the Department of Defense. National Conference on Environmental Decision Making, Knoxville, TN (USA).
	
Boice, L. P. (1996). "Managing endangered species on military lands." Endangered Species Update 13(7/8): 1-6.
	The Department of Defense (DoD) is the third largest federal land managing agency in the United States, managing over 25 million acres of land on over 425 major military installations. DoD uses these areas to maintain mission readiness. Marine and estuarine environments are used to test vessels and submarine tracking equipment, evaluate missile weapons, hold shock trials on new ships and carry out training exercises. Airspace is used to train pilots and test fighter planes as well as air-based weapons systems. Combat training exercises, munitions testing, and deployment of weapons systems are conducted on land resources. 

DoD lands are found in many different habitats across the country and contain rich and varied natural and cultural resources. Limited access due to security considerations and the need for safety buffer zones have protected these resources for decades from development and other potentially damaging uses. As a result, DoD installations contain some of the finest remaining examples of rare native vegetative communities such as old-growth forest, tall-grass prairies and vernal pool wetlands. Approximately 220 different federally listed species are known to occur on at least one DoD installation-the highest known density per acre of threatened and endangered species found on any federal lands. Many candidate species may be found on lands under DoD control. More than 200 installations provide habitat for at least one candidate or listed species. 

DoD embraces its stewardship responsibilities for these valuable resources. However, underlying any management decision affecting DoD lands is the fact that these lands must first be managed for the continued use of military training and testing-a situation quite different from that of "traditional" land management agencies. This is manifested in DoD's three-part conservation goal, which is to support the military mission by: 1) providing for sustained use of its land, sea, and air resources, while protecting valuable natural and cultural resources for future generations; 2) meeting all legal requirements, for example, of the Endangered Species Act; and, 3) protecting compatible multiple use of these resources. The challenge for DoD is to balance the need to maintain its access to air, land, and water resources for current military training with the need to protect and manage these resources for all desired long-term uses. 

Boice, L. P. (1999). "Conserving the Department of Defense's natural and cultural resources: recent advances, new challenges." Federal Facilities Environmental Journal 9(4): 21-30.
	The Department of Defense (DOD) has adopted a far-reaching and challenging conservation goal. Yet, DOD faces significant challenges in achieving this goal. DOD managers are under increasing pressure from many directions regarding how to use and manage these resources. Recent actions have resulted in decidedly mixed results for the future health of the natural and cultural resources on DOD lands. It will take continued progress through such initiatives as implementing the Sikes Act Improvement Amendments and continuing to fund DOD-wide conservation initiatives through the Legacy program to ensure the continued health of DOD's natural and cultural resources.

Boice, P. (1996). Environmental Conservation Program, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Acquisition and Technology), Washington, DC: 38 p.
	This Instruction: (1) Implements policy, assigns responsibilities, and prescribes procedures under reference (a) for the integrated management of natural and cultural resources on property under DoD control. (2) Authorizes the publication of 'A Resource Manager's Guide to Volunteer and Partnership Programs' and 'A Guide to Integrated Natural Resources Management.' (3) Implements references (d) through (gg). (4) Establishes the DoD Conservation Committee that reports to the Environmental Safety and Occupational Health (ESOH) Policy Board. and (5) Designates 'DoD Executive Agents' to lead DoD implementation of key conservation issues, as specified in enclosure.

Bolsinger, J. S. (2000). "Use of two song categories by Golden-cheeked Warblers." Condor 102(3): 539-552.
	I tape-recorded and counted the songs of color-banded Golden- cheeked Warblers (Dendroica chrysoparia) on Fort Hood, Texas in 1993 and 1994 to determine whether males use a two-category song system common to many wood-warbler species. More than 97% of all songs I documented belonged to two categories: A and B. A songs were higher in frequency, shorter, less complex, and were delivered at lower rates than B songs. Males used A songs primarily early in the nesting season, when near females, and from the interior of territories. In contrast, B songs were more common later in the nesting season, at dawn, and when males sang near territory boundaries. Songs delivered near territory edges were usually sung from one or two preferred perches on each male's territory that often coincided with the edge of a cliff or a break in the forest canopy. Based on these data, and in contrast to the implications of an early account of Golden-cheeked Warbler song use, this species shares the song system used by many wood-warbler species. Furthermore, the patterns of song use that I observed suggest that males do not sing randomly with respect to time or location on territory, and monitoring efforts that assume random singing across time and space may result in inaccurate or biased estimates of population sizes and habitat preferences.

Boykin, K. G., J. Bak, et al. (2001). Application and Assessment of Species At Risk Conservation Approaches at Fort Bliss and White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico and Texas. Las Cruces, NM, New Mexico Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit: 176 p.
	
Boykin, K. G., J. M. Bak, et al. (2001). Application and assessment of species at risk conservation approaches at fort bliss military reservation and white sands missile range, New Mexico and Texas. The Wildlife Society 2001 Conference, Reno/Tahoe, NV.
	unpublished report with same title and authors (2001)

Boykin, K. G., P. L. Matusik, et al. (1997). Biotic and Physical Attributes of Surface and Near-Surface Water Sites on Fort Bliss Military Reservation: Inventory and Comparative Assessment. Las Cruces, NM, New Mexico Cooperative Fish & Wildlife Research Unit: 88 p.
	
Brar, G. S. and C. M. Reynolds (1996). Soil Physical Environment and Root Growth in Northern Climates, US Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory: 30 p.
	Understanding the growth and function of plant roots in cold climates is critical, but examination of root systems to elucidate their link to production is expensive and labor-intensive. Limited information is available on the root growth and functions of plants grown in northern climates. Our objective is to present an overview of the influence of physical edaphic factors on plant root systems with special emphasis on models that are available for simulating root growth. This report summarizes the impact of the soil physical environment (soil water, soil temperature, soil air, physical impedance, and spatial variability) on root uptake and growth. Roots grow because new cells are formed in the meristematic tissue near the root tip, and these newly formed cells increase in volume, pushing the root tip forward if growth conditions are satisfactory. Rapid elongation of primary roots, combined with well-developed secondary roots, allows the plants to exploit moisture and nutrients from a greater soil volume. Root and shoots are strongly interdependent. The roots receive photo-synthates and growth hormones from shoots and in return furnish water and nutrients to the shoots. Several root growth models have been developed during the past decade; however, none addresses the problems associated with cold regions. The models reported in the literature can be classified as (1) simple models, (2) carbon partition models, (3) growing degree day-based models, (4) soil parameter-based models, and (5) arctic plant growth models. 

Braunack, M. V. (1985). "The effect of Tracked Vehicles on Soil Strength and Micro-Relief of a Calcareous Earth (Gc 1.12) North of Woomera, South Australia." The Australian Rangeland Journal 7(1): 17-21.
	Changes in soil strength and surface micro-relief were measured in a calcareous earth (Gc. 1.12) at a site north of Woomera, before and after the passage of a tracked vehicle. The passage of a tracked vehicle resulted in a reduction of ?oil strength and the formation of ruts. The degree of change depended on the number of vehicle passes and whether the vehicle was travelling in a straight line or turning. Implications for erosion are discussed.

Braunack, M. V. (1986). "Changes in Physical-Properties of 2 Dry Soils During Tracked Vehicle Passage." Journal of Terramechanics 23(3-4): 141-151.
	Soil strength, surface micro-relief, bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity were measured for two soil types (Dd 1.13 and Uc 2.12) at Shoalwater Bay, Queensland, before and after the passage of a tracked vehicle. Such impact of a vehicle resulted in a decrease in the strength of the surface soil, an increase in bulk density, a decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity and the formation of ruts. The degree of change depended on soil type, the number of vehicular passes and whether the vehicle was travelling in a straight line or turning. 

Braunack, M. V. (1986). "The Residual Effects of Tracked Vehicles on Soil Surface-Properties." Journal of Terramechanics 23(1): 37-50.
	Differences in soil surface properties were measured on soil cores collected from within tracks and adjacent undisturbed areas. The passage of tracks resulted in an increase in bulk density, a reduction in saturated hydraulic conductivity and an increase in cone penetrometer resistance. Laboratory direct-shear tests showed in-track soil was stronger than out-of-track samples. The saturated hydraulic conductivity of in-track soil cores increased with an increasing number of wetting and draining cycles, whereas out-of-track samples showed little change. Implications for erosion, vegetation regeneration and management strategies for off-road vehicle areas are discussed, with some speculation as to the rate of recovery of impacted areas. 

Breland, A. E. (2001). Automatic classification of vegetation and land degradation with large-scale, color infrared, aerial imagery. Reno, NV, University of Nevada: 46 p.
	The use of aerial, color infrared, digital imagery was examined as a tool for monitoring land degradation from training on the Fort Bliss military reservation in New Mexico. Principal components analysis and raster correlation matrices were utilized to interpret image variance. High color band correlation and a predominance of the spatial aspect of imagery was determined. A color space conversion and low pass filtering in frequency space were employed as pre-classification image processing techniques to enable vegetation patch delineation. Ecologically significant classes relating to vegetative disturbance and recovery stages were automatically extracted with an unsupervised classification algorithm. Range ecology models of Seral Stages and Increaser/Decreaser/Invaders were used to label classification results.

Brezinka, J. (1995). Land Condition-trend Analysis, 1991-1994, Installation Report, Camp Ripley, Minnesota, Camp Ripley Training Site Environmental Office.
	
Bright, T. A. and S. Getlein (2002). Remote Sensing Users’ Guide Version 2.5, The U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC), U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center Topographic Engineering Center (TEC) & Construction Engineering Research Labs (CERL).
	
Brozka, B. (1997). Bird and Small Mammal Surveys at Sheridan, Lovell, and Lander Training Sites, Wyoming National Guard, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Brozka, R. J. and S. D. Warren (2000). Maneuver Lanes at Pfandhausen Training Area, Schweinfurt, Germany: Feasibility Study.
	
Burger, J. (1998). "Attitudes about recreation, environmental problems, and estuarine health along the New Jersey shore, USA." Environmental Management 22(6): 869-876.
	Management of ecosystems has advanced by an improvement in our understanding not only of how ecosystems function, but of how people perceive their functioning and what they consider to be environmental problems within those systems. Central to such management is understanding how people view estuaries. In this article I explore the perceptions and attitudes of people about coastal recreation, environmental problems, and future land use along the New Jersey shore (USA) by interviewing people who attended a duck decoy and craft show on Barnegat Bay. The people who were interviewed engaged in more days of fish-ing than any other recreational activity and engaged in camping the least. There were significant differences in recreational rates as a function of gender and location of residence, with men hunting and fishing more than women and photographing less than women. Jet skis were perceived as the most severe environmental problem, with chemical pollution, junk, oil runoff and overfishing as second level problems. Birds were perceived as not an environmental problem at all. Fishing, hiking, preservation, and camping ranked as the highest preferred future land uses for the two sites examined (Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, Naval Weapons Station Earle). The preferred future land uses for these two sites, which are not under consideration for land-use changes, were very similar to those of people living near the Department of Energy's Savannah River Site in South Carolina, despite the media attention and considerations of nuclear storage.  (Author abstract) [References: 22]

Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Cnemidophorus tigris (western whiptail)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 112.
	
Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Cnemidophorus uniparens (desert grassland whiptail)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 112.
	
Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Leptotyphlops humilis (western blind snake)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 114.
	
Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Rhinocheilus lecontei (longnose snake)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 114.
	
Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Sceloporus magister (desert spiny lizard)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 113.
	
Burkett, D. W. and D. Black (2000). "Uta stansburiana (side-blotched lizard)." Herpetological-Review 31(2): 113.
	
Burkett, D. W. and B. C. Thompson (1994). "Wildlife Association with Human-Altered Water Sources in Semiarid Vegetation Communities." Conservation Biology 8(3): 682-690.
	Based on common use in wildlife management, we hypothesized that human-constructed water sources influence faunal communities detectably compared to similar habitats that lack water. We examined 20 wildlife water units and 20 paired comparison sites without water from April to August 1992 in semiarid southern New Mexico to assess animal species associations. We sampled sites by using small-mammal live traps, herpetofaunal and invertebrate pitfall arrays, and 30- minute time-area counts. We compared animal species richness and species concordance among water units (rain catchments, earthen tanks, and windmills) and comparison sites in three vegetation communities (mixed scrub, grassland, and pinyon- juniper). We detected 134 animal taxa during field sampling. Animal species richness did not differ between water units and comparison sites among vegetation communities. Amphibians were found only at water units but occur far from units during seasonal wet periods. Greater numbers of individual small mammals and herpetofauna at water units versus comparison sites likely related to debris and disturbed soil present near water units. Taxa detected at water units and comparison sites were 65% concordant overall; discordant taxa were those rarely detected. Our data implied that definitive effects of artificial water sources on native wildlife species were not detectable. Providing water sources may be a strategic management tool but must be viewed critically regarding effect on distribution of native, feral, and exotic animals. Water units should be developed only when and where clear objectives have been stated, natural water sources have been quantified, commitment exists to ensure continued function, and feral and exotic animals will not benefit to the detriment of native species.

Burr Neely, R. J., Jr. (2001). Early Mining History: Fort Wainwright and Fort Greely, Alaska. G. R. Lesondak. Fort Collins, CO, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University: 43 p.
	
Burton, L. and T. Williams (2000). "This bird has flown: uncertain fate of wildlife on closed military bases." Natural Resources Journal 41: 885-917.
	As the fifth largest public lands manager in the federal government, the U.S. Department of Defense hosts significant wildlife populations on many of its large military bases in exurban and rural areas of the United States. As the military’s mission began to change in the late twentieth century, Congress authorized the closure of several large bases. This closure legislation, however, makes no direct provision for the preservation of open space generally or wildlife habitat conservation specifically on these closed bases. This article presents case study research on the closure of two air force bases roughly equal in size and natural resource attributes. At one base, nearly a fourth of the land mass was preserved as a wildlife refuge; while at the other, all significant wildlife habitat was destroyed by real estate development. The two most significant factors accounting for the radical difference in these two base closure cases were (1) the political culture of the communities surrounding the bases, and (2) the relative presence of what Harvard political scientist Robert Putnam refers to as social capital. Several administrative measures can be taken within the Department of Defense and at the state and local level to increase the likelihood that the nation’s wildlife heritage is better preserved in future base closures than is now usually the case.

Busby, W. H. and J. R. Parmelee (1996). "Historical changes in a herpetofaunal assemblage in the Flint Hills of Kansas." American Midland Naturalist 135(1): 81-91.
	To assess changes in the herpetofauna in the northern Flint Hills of Kansas, we conducted a survey on the Fort Riley Military Reservation (Riley and Geary counties) in 1993 and compared our results with those of C. E. Burt and other early collectors. Of 46 species reported before 1930, 37 were found in 1993. Four species recorded before 1930 and not found in 1993 (Bufo cognatus, Carphophis vermis, Thamnophis radix and Crotalus horridus) are known or believed to persist in Riley and Geary counties. Four other species (Heterodon platirhinos, Nerodia erythrogaster, N. rhombifer and Regina grahamii) have not been reported in over 50 yr and may be extirpated locally. Two additional species (Spea bombifrons and Trachemys scripta) found in 1993 were not reported by early collectors. Changes in relative abundance of species from pre-1930 to 1993 were few and there was no evidence of decline in amphibian populations. With the exception of declines in species dependent on rare habitats located in the floodplain of major rivers, the herpetological assemblage in the Fort Riley area has changed little during the past 70-100 yr. We attribute this stability to land uses that have maintained large tracts of native vegetation.

Carter, L. J. (1974). "Off-Road Vehicles: A Compromise Plan for the California Desert." Science of the Total Environment 183: 396-399.
	Off-road vehicle activities in the California desert are described, and potential and actual impacts on wildlife and other resources discussed. Management alternatives are considered in relation to minimizing impacts in desert resources.

Carthy, R. R., M. K. Oli, et al. (2005). Analysis of gopher tortoise population estimation techniques, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center: 41 p.
	Estimating threatened and endangered species (TES) population trends is essential to be able to track a species’ recovery progress. Natural resources managers on military installations use a wide variety of survey and moni-toring methods, with incomplete knowledge toward their accuracy. Using the gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) as the test case species, this report examines TES population estimation techniques for accuracy. Managers are cautioned to not accept surveys with unchallenged assumptions of total observability of burrows, and to not convert survey results to tortoise numbers utilizing published correction factors that may not be applicable to a local survey site. The versatility of the quadrat (plot) sampling method recommends it as a default technique that can be used in many sampling circumstances with reasonable expectations of accuracy. Strip transects with reasonable estimates of detect-ability can offer similar utility when habitat conditions make them appropriate. Previous studies comparing burrow survey methodologies have not adequately addressed the issue of detectability, which presents a weakness in current population estimation and total count techniques. It is therefore recommended to under-take a rigorous field test of these techniques to remove the detectability weakness.

Cavalcanti, G. G. and B. G. Lockaby (2005). "Effects of Sediment Deposition on Fine Root Dynamics in Riparian Forests." Soil Science Society of America Journal 69(3): 729-737.
	One of the most important functions of riparian zones is their ability to improve water quality by trapping sediment leaving agricultural fields and other disturbed areas. However, few data exist quantifying the impacts of sediment deposition from anthropogenic disturbance on belowground processes within these ecosystems. This study was conducted at Ft. Benning, GA, where disturbance caused by military training has generated a range of sedimentation levels in riparian forests near ephemeral streams. Nine ephemeral streams, exhibiting different levels of sediment deposition, were selected for study. Two paired treatment plots (upper and lower) were established along each catchment to represent potentially disturbed and control conditions, respectively. On highly and moderately disturbed catchments, upper plots had received varying rates of sediment from erosion along unpaved roads. Biomass, turnover, productivity, and nutrient contents of fine roots were compared within and across catchments. Temporal fluctuations in biomass of live and dead fine roots were observed for both treatments in the three disturbance categories, except for upper plots of highly disturbed catchments, where blomass remained fairly iow and constant throughout the study. Fine root productivity declined sharply with sediment rates as Iow as 0.3 cm yr<sup>-1</sup>. Nutrient contents of live and dead fine roots followed a similar trend to that of root biomass. These data suggest that fine root dynamics may be affected by sediment deposition rates commonly occurring in some wetland forests, and the water filtration function performed by these ecosystems may be at risk.

Cavallaro, N. (2002). Wetlands creation filtering runoff from an army vehicle test course. Wetlands And Remediation II: proceedings of the Second International Conference on Wetlands & Remediation, Burlington, Vermont, September 5-6, 2001. N. KW and B. SE. Columbus, Ohio, Battelle Press: 251-254.
	2 acres of emergent wetlands were created on Aberdeen Test Center (ATC), APG's major tenant and one of eight DTC Test Centers. The site is located inside Perryman Cross Country Test Track Two and is acting in filtering runoff during storm events prior to water being released into a nearby stream. This field-scale project was created in the summer of 1999 as a requirement of a mitigation action for an installation restoration project to replace wetlands on APG. It consisted of removing soil between the test course and Sod Run, thus reducing the land elevation, creating two separate ponds, and revegetating the area with native seeds, plants, and trees. The contaminant being addressed is loose soil coming off of the unpaved test course that may otherwise enter directly into the watershed if the wetlands were not in place, as tracked and untracked military vehicles are undergoing performance testing. The soil is of concern because of its effect as a non-point source pollutant in the watershed and the shear amount of it that could cause elevated turbidity levels in the nearby stream. ATC utilizes and has jurisdiction of approximately 33,000 acres (12,000 acres covered by water, 4,000 acres of swamp or marsh areas, and 17,000 acres of vegetated uplands). ATC uses most of APG's land area for ordnance and military vehicle testing at a multitude of specialty test facilities and the wetlands project site is adjacent to one of these ATC facilities. An overview of the wetlands project site before its implementation and two years after its creation is to be discussed. Benefits derived from utilizing the simple technology of creating wetland ponds from hollowing out land, planting vegetation, and the placement of a water control structure will also be shared. [References: 11]

Cavanagh, P. M., W. C. Porter, et al. (2000). Fire management activities, Fort Hood, Texas, 2000. Endangered Species Monitoring at Fort Hood, Texas: 2000 Annual Report. Fort Hood, Texas, USA, Fort Hood Project, The Nature Conservancy of Texas.
	
Childress, M. W., D. L. Price, et al. (1999). A Functional Description of the Ecological Dynamics Simulation (EDYS) Model, With Applications for Army and Other Federal Land Managers. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab 70 p.
	In FY95, USACERL initiated the "Land Based Carrying Capacity" capability package. The impetus behind this research and development package was the coincidence of needs from the Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations (ODCSOPS), the Office of the Directorate of Environmental Programs (ODEP) and several installations, to address the requirement of sustainable training and testing land carrying capacity. A key component of this capability package is the Ecological Dynamics Simulation (EDYS) model. The model provides the capability to predict responses of training lands to both military and non-military stressors and facilitates linking the cost of training and testing land maintenance to the actual level of training. We provide here a functional description of the EDYS model with applications for several Army installations, the U.S. Air Force Academy, and the National Water Management Center of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. We also have included appendices that describe system implementation, and data requirements and structure. The EDYS model will be incorporated into the Land Management System (LMS) and will be available to users via the Corps' Engineer Research and Development Center web site.

Childress, W. M., C. L. Coldren, et al. (2002). "Applying a complex, general ecosystem model (EDYS) in large-scale land management." Ecological Modelling 153(1-2): 97-108.
	A critical need in the management of public and non-urban private lands in the United States and elsewhere is assessing the efficacy of different management alternatives under different environmental and land use scenarios. One type of tool that would be extremely valuable is large-scale ecological simulation models designed to project effects of alternative climatic, usage, and management scenarios on ecological resources. A modeling challenge in this type of application is to link mechanistic simulations of small-scale 'ecosystem' processes to large-scale 'landscape' processes to provide more realistic and exhaustive projections of effects and ramifications of management alternatives. The Ecological DYnamics Simulation model (EDYS) is a general ecosystem simulation model that mechanistically implements relevant processes in ecosystem dynamics, including: climatic inputs, soil water and nutrient dynamics, plant uptake and growth by species, herbivory, fire, contaminants, physical disturbance, and management activities. In the EDYS model, ecological processes simulated in plot-level ecosystem cells are scaled up to the landscape level using a grid-based representation of the spatial extent of that ecosystem across the landscape. A significant practical challenge in applying complex ecological models is compilation of appropriate input data from a wide-variety of print and on-line media. A semi-automated database is currently under development, which will compile, organize, and format data sets to facilitate future EDYS applications. Another challenge is linking different types of models, each of which is specialized to simulate particular aspects of ecosystem and landscape dynamics. As so many different types of organizations are presently involved in model development and resource management, ownership of models and datasets will increasingly become an issue in their distribution and use among different types of land managers. (C) 2002 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Childress, W. M., T. McLendon, et al. (1998). A multiscale ecological model for allocation of training activities on U.S. Army installations. Ecological Analysis: Issues, Challenges and Ideas, Ecological Studies Series. J. M. Klopatak and R. H. Gardner. Berlin, Springer Verlag: 80-108.
	
Cionco, R. M. (1978). "Analysis of canopy index values for various canopy densities." Boundary Layer Meteorology 15(1): 81-94.
	Canopy wind profiles can often be represented by an exponential function such that windspeeds in these vegetative canopies are a function of height and the attenuation coefficient of this wind profile relationship. Canopy flow is a function of canopy density, element flexibility and height. An index of canopy flow can be defined as a conservative measure of the gross flow response to the presence of various types of roughness elements. Windspeed profile data of 2 different canopy density experiments - field and wind tunnel - were analyzed based on least-square fittings. The 2 sets of index values of canopy flow behave in a similar manner with maxima occurring for optimum densities of 1/3 the potential full array of roughness elements. These index values also differ by some 0.2, but are still compatible when the respective levels of turbulence within these dissimilar canopies is accounted for.

Clary, M. L., D. M. Bell, et al. (1999). "Checklist of mammals from twelve habitat types at Fort Bliss Military Base; 1997-1998." Occasional Papers of the Museum of Texas Tech University 192: 1-16.
	no abstract

Clary, M. L., R. E. Strauss, et al. (2002). "Small mammal communities and habitat associations in the Chihuahuan Desert near Fort Bliss, New Mexico." Occasional Papers of the Museum of Texas Tech University 215: 1-15.
	no abstract

Cochran, C. C. (unpublished). Estimating Wind Erosion on Military Lands: 8 p.
	
Cockman, J. S. (1996). Identification of classification parameters for ephemeral drainages in the sacramento mountains of southern New Mexico: vegetation diversity. Range Science. Las Cruces, New Mexico State University: 233 p.
	Riparian corridors are small in area compared to the surrounding watershed, but their importance is great. In the southwestern U.S., there are three types of riparian corridors: perennial streams, arroyos, and ephemeral drainages. Perennial streams flow water year around and have been studied for their contribution as a water source to man and beast. Arroyos have been studied for their effect in the loss of natural resources due to accelerated erosion. However, little research has been conducted on ephemeral drainages. The purpose of this study was to describe vegetation along ephemeral drainages compared to the adjacent watershed, and to compare types of drainages. The study was conducted in the Sacramento Mountains in southern New Mexico.  A univariate model allowed for comparisons of vegetation between types of drainages (submesa-vs.-foothill), elevation (headwater, midwater, tailwater), position (main channel, alluvium, flank, upland) and exposure (northwest, southeast). Response variables included percent foliar cover, plant density, species richness, and height of shrubs and trees.  Univariate analyses of variance including contrast statements was conducted to test the primary response variables. Cluster analyses, similarity indices, importance values, and analyses of obligate and exclusive species were conducted to examine species composition and related hypotheses.  The univariate analyses showed that the foothill drainage type produced significantly more cover and greater species richness than the submesa. These were greatest in the main channel for all groups of plants except half-shrubs and cacti which were most abundant on the submesa upland positions.  Elevation was shown to have an effect throughout the analyses. However, type of drainage and position of sample location were more important in the model. At a minimum, an examination of the drainage to distinguish it from the surrounding watershed should include measures of shrub cover and height. Differences between drainage types is more dependent on species composition than on measures of production. Therefore, species presence and the use of tools such as similarity indices were found to be more important than analyses of variance in classifying types of drainages.

Cohn, J. P. (1996). "New defenders of wildlife." Bioscience 46(1): 11-14.
	
Coldren, C. L., T. McLendon, et al. (2001). Application of the EDYS model to a training area landscape at Fort Bliss, Texas. Fort Collins, Colorado, Shepherd Miller Inc.: 82 p.
	
Conomy, J. T., J. A. Collazo, et al. (1998). "Dabbling duck behavior and aircraft activity in coastal North Carolina." Journal of Wildlife Management 62(3): 1127-1134.
	Requests to increase military aircraft activity in some training facilities in the United States have prompted the need to determine if waterfowl and other wildlife are adversely affected by aircraft disturbance. We quantified behavioral responses of wintering American black ducks (Anas rubripes), American wigeon (A. americana), gadwall (A, streptera), and American green-winged teal (A. crecca carolinensis) exposed to low-level flying military aircrafts; at Piney and Cedar islands, North Carolina, in 1991 and 1992. Waterfowl spent less than or equal to 1.4% of their time responding to aircraft, which included flying, swimming, and alert behaviors. Mean duration of responses by species ranged from 10 to 40 sec. Costs to each species were deemed low because disruptions represented a low percentage of their time-activity budgets, only a small proportion of birds reacted to disturbance (13/672; 2%), and the likelihood of resuming the activity disrupted by an aircraft disturbance event was high (64%). Recorded levels of aircraft disturbance (i.e., (x) over bar = 85.1 dBA) were not adversely affecting the time-activity budgets of selected waterfowl species wintering at Piney and Cedar islands.

Conomy, J. T., J. A. Dubovsky, et al. (1998). "Do black ducks and wood ducks habituate to aircraft disturbance?" Journal of Wildlife Management 62(3): 1135-1142.
	Requests to increase military aircraft activity in some training facilities in the United States have raised the need to determine if waterfowl and other wildlife are adversely affected by aircraft disturbance. We hypothesized that habituation was a possible proximate factor influencing the low proportion of free-ranging ducks reacting to military aircraft activities in a training range in coastal North Carolina during winters 1991 and 1992. To test this hypothesis, we subjected captive, wild-strain American black ducks (Anas rubripes) and wood ducks (Aix sponsa) to actual and simulated activities of jet aircraft. In the first experiment, we placed black ducks in an enclosure near the center of aircraft activities on Piney Island, a military aircraft target range in coastal North Carolina. The proportion of times black ducks reacted (e.g., alert posture, fleeing response) to visual and auditory aircraft activity decreased from 38 to 6% during the first 17 days of confinement. Response rates remained stable at 5.8% thereafter. In the second experiment, black ducks and wood ducks were exposed to 6 different recordings of jet noise. The proportion of times black ducks reacted to noise decreased (P < 0.05) from first day of exposure (25%) to last (i.e., day 4. 8%). Except for a 2% difference in comfort, we detected no differences (P > 0.05) in time-activity budgets of black ducks between pre-exposure to noise and 24 hr after first exposure. Unlike black ducks, wood duck responses to jet noise did not decrease uniformly among experimental groups following initial exposure to noise (P = 0.01). We conclude that initial exposure to aircraft noise elicits behavioral responses from black ducks and wood ducks. With continued exposure of aircraft noise, black ducks may become habituated. However, wood ducks did not exhibit the same pattern of response, suggesting that the ability of waterfowl to habituate to aircraft noise may be species specific.

Corporation, U. (2001). McGregor Range resource management plan amendment and environmental impact statement. Scoping summary report. Las Cruces, NM, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Las Cruces District Office: 23 p.
	
Couvillion, C. E., E. W. Jenney, et al. (1980). "Survey for antibodies to viruses of bovine virus diarrhea, bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease in hunter-killer mule deer (Odicoileus hemionus) in New Mexico, USA." Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 177(9): 790-791.
	Sera from male mule deer (0. hemionus) collected in Nov. 1977 in Otero County, New Mexico, were tested for antibodies to bovine virus diarrhea virus (BVDV), bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV). Neutralizing antibodies were detected in 26 of 76 (34%) sera tested for BVDV (titer gtoreq 1:16). Of 46 sera tested for antibodies to BTV and EHIDV, 10 (22%) and 3 (7%), respectively, were positive. Three (7%) of 46 sera were suspect titer it 1:20) for BTV and 18 (38%) sera were suspect (titer it 1:20) for EHDV

Cowie, R. H., G. M. Nishida, et al. (1995). "Patterns of Land Snail Distribution in a Montane Habitat on the Island of Hawaii." Malacologia 36(1-2): 155-169.
	A quantitative survey of a 35 km(2) area between 1,500 m and 2,100 m elevation on the island of Hawaii recorded at least 16 species of land snails. Fifteen of these are probably endemic to the island; one is indigenous but not endemic. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) of their local distributions in relation to substratum (i.e., lava) type, altitude, and a suite of vegetation-related variables, explained 24% of the variance in distribution and abundance. The unexplained variance is probably related to a range of other abiotic, biotic, stochastic and scale factors. Of this 24% overall variance, 79% was explained by axes 1 acid 2 of the CCA, which seemed related most strongly to lava type and altitude, respectively. The vegetation-related variables seemed relatively unimportant, although there was a hint that a number of species were negatively associated with the plant community characterized as ''Dodonaea shrubland.'' Military activities, the presence of introduced feral ungulates, and the increasing trend of invasion by non-native plants, all have the potential to damage this unique fauna.

Creswell, L. L. (1994). Endangered Species on Military Training Lands: Cooperation Between the Military Services and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Final report. Newport, RI, Naval War Coll.: 132 p.
	Interagency conflict occurs when endangered species thrive in habitat on military training lands. In these cases U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologists and military professionals must 'consult' under the federal Endangered Species Act. Several institutional factors aggravate the relationship between these individuals. Nevertheless, there are sound agency reasons to seek greater cooperation, and to overcome some of the potential barrier's to joint planning. Such reasons include: reduced program delays, reduced long-term costs, enhanced ability to deal with other outside issues, and better management decision making. Military base commanders and 'US Fish and Wildlife Service field office supervisors are key leaders in improving interagency cooperation. This research identifies several impediments to such Cooperation. It then recommends a strategy to remove some of these impediments, and to obtain the benefits of military-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Crumpacker, D. W., S. W. Hodge, et al. (1988). "A Preliminary Assessment of the Status of Major Terrestrial and Wetland Ecosystems on Federal and Indian Lands in the United States." Conservation Biology 2(1): 103-115.
	Major terrestrial and wetland ecosystems in the United States were described by 135 Kuchler potential natural vegetation (PNV) types. Their occurrence on federal and Indian lands was then determined by computer overlay of PNV maps on the National Geographic Society's 1982 map of America's Federal Lands. Based on the map scales used, it was determined that at least 33 of 135 PNV types (24%) are inadequately represented on federal and Indian lands. Nine of the 33 have no representation. Eleven others have relatively little representation and are either naturally rare or have been largely converted to nonnatural uses. All federal agencies and the Indian lands have large gaps in their ecosystem coverage. Among agencies with nationwide land management systems and strong conservation mandates, the percentage of major ecosystem types with no apparent representation on these agenlands is: U.S. Forest Service, 27 percent; National Park Service, 33 percent; and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 53 percent. The Bureau of Land Management, Department of Defense, and Indian lands collectively play an important role in supplementing the current coverage of the other agencies. Because of inaccuracies associated with the small-scale maps that were analyzed and the nature of PNV types, these results are preliminary and should be used only for general planning. Inclusion of a PNV type within a management unit, based on map overlay, does not ensure that mature vegetation representative of that type actually is present on the ground. Additional assessments would have to be made to determine the type and health of existing vegetation within the unit, as well as the amount of future protection that the unit would be expected to provide. Cooperation among federal, state, and local agencies and private organizations is needed to provide a cost-effective program of national ecosystem conservation. More detailed state and regional surveys can be used to improve the accuracy of this preliminary national survey.

Cully, J. F. and H. L. Michaels (2000). "Henslow's Sparrow habitat associations on Kansas tallgrass prairie." Wilson Bulletin 112(1): 115-123.
	We examined macro- and microhabitat characteristics of breeding Henslow's Sparrows (Ammodramus henslowii) on Fort Riley Military Reservation, Kansas during 1995 and 1996. Survey points were identified at the microhabitat scale as either grassland, savanna, or woodland edge. A military disturbance index was used to quantify the severity of training disturbance to the vegetation at survey and bird use sites. At the large scale, Henslow's Sparrows were associated with grassland habitat last burned in 1993, two or three years previously. Microhabitat at Henslow's Sparrow use sites had lower tree density than random survey points, but neither shrub density nor military disturbance index differed between use sites and survey points during spring. In summer, the military track index was higher on Henslow's Sparrow's use sites. Habitat used by Henslow's Spar rows was consistently tall and dense vegetation with high litter cover during early spring, late spring, and summer whereas the vegetation of random survey points changed in response to vegetation growth. Characteristics of Henslow's Sparrow use sites included high cover by litter and dense, structurally homogeneous vegetation, whereas litter depth and standing dead vegetation, physiognomic diversity, and military disturbance did not differ from random survey points.

Cully, J. F. and S. L. Winter (2000). "Evaluation of land condition trend analysis for birds on a Kansas military training site." Environmental Management 25(6): 625-633.
	Land condition trend analysis (LCTA) is a longterm monitoring program used on military training lands to identify ecological changes that result from training and management activities. We initiated LCTA at the Kansas Army National Guard Training Facility (KANGTF) in Saline County, Kansas, in March 1998. This paper evaluates the LCTA methodology for birds by comparing LCTA results with a modified methodology designed to place sampling transects in field-identified rather than satellite- identified land-cover types. In the satellite-identified land- cover types developed at the site, grassland habitats included a large component of woody vegetation, which resulted in poor resolution of bird assemblages associated with the different land-cover types. Using these cover classes, mixed grass prairie included five grass/forb (g/f) and 10 woody-dependent species; old-field included four g/f and four woody-dependent species; and riparian included one g/f and six woody-dependent species. LCTA sampling was too limited in the ecologically important riparian woodland habitat with the result that bird species were not adequately sampled there. In the alternate sampling strategy, we identified three land-cover classes (grassland, hedgerow, and riparian woodland) by field reconnaissance and increased sampling in the riparian woodland. Grassland included six g/f and three woody-dependent species; hedgerow included six g/f and 20 woody-dependent species, and riparian included two gif and 19 woody-dependent species. The modifications greatly improved the resolution of bird assemblages associated with land-cover classes at the KANGTF. Use of the alternative sampling method should improve the ability to detect long-term trends in the bird communities.

Daigle, J. J., W. H. Hudnall, et al. (2005). "The national soil information system (NASIS): Designing soil interpretation classes for military land-use predictions." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 305-320.
	The focus of the National Cooperative Soil Survey is shifting from producing static, printed soil survey reports to providing a dynamic resource of soils information for a wide range of needs. The National Soil Information System (NASIS) is the core component of this vision and is designed to manage and maintain soil data from collection to dissemination. NASIS supports this conceptual shift in three important areas: (1) collection of new information in compliance with standards, (2) application of expert knowledge to make information usable for a variety of purposes, and (3) dissemination of information to a wide variety of users. This paper demonstrates the use of NASIS for evaluating the suitability of military lands for vehicle related land-use activities. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dale, V., D. L. Druckenbrod, et al. (2005). "Vehicle impacts on the environment at different spatial scales: observations in west central Georgia, USA." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 383-402.
	Roads and vehicles change the environmental conditions in which they occur. One way to categorize these effects is by the spatial scale of the cause and the impacts. Roads may be viewed from the perspective of road segments, the road network, or roads within land ownership or political boundaries such as counties. This paper examines the hypothesis that the observable impacts of roads on the environment depend on spatial resolution. To examine this hypothesis, the environmental impacts of vehicles and roads were considered at four scales in west central Georgia in and around Fort Benning: a second-order catchment, a third-order watershed, the entire military installation, and the five-county region including Fort Benning. Impacts from an experimental path made by a tracked vehicle were examined in the catchment. Land-cover changes discerned through remote sensing data over the past three decades were considered at the watershed and installation scales. A regional simulation model was used to project changes in land cover for the five-county region. Together these analyses provide a picture of the how environmental impacts of roads and vehicles can occur at different spatial scales. Following tracked vehicle impact with a D7 bulldozer, total vegetation cover responded quickly, but the plant species recovered differently. Soils were compacted in the top 10 cm and are likely to remain so for some time. Examining the watershed from 1974 to 1999 revealed that conversion from forest to nonforest was highest near unpaved roads and trails. At the installation scale, major roads as well as unpaved roads and trails were associated with most of the conversion from forest to nonforest. For the five-county region, most of the conversion from forest to nonforest is projected to be due to urban spread rather than direct road impacts. The study illustrates the value of examining the effects of roads at several scales of resolution and shows that road impacts in west central Georgia are most important at local to subregional scales. The insights from these analyses led to several questions about resource management at different spatial scales. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of ISTVS.

Dale, V. H., S. C. Beyeler, et al. (2002). "Understory vegetation indicators of anthropogenic disturbance in longleaf pine forests at Fort Benning, Georgia, USA " Ecological Indicators 1(3): 155-170.
	Environmental indicators for longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystems need to include some measure of understory vegetation because of its responsiveness to disturbance and management practices. To examine the characteristics of understory species that distinguish between disturbances induced by military traffic, we randomly established transects in four training intensity categories (reference, light, moderate, and heavy) and in an area that had been remediated following intense disturbance at Fort Benning, GA. A total of 134 plant species occurred in these transects with the highest diversity (95 species) in light training areas and the lowest (16 species) in heavily disturbed plots. Forty-seven species were observed in only one of the five disturbance categories. The variability in understory vegetation cover among disturbance types was trimodal ranging from less than 5% cover for heavily disturbed areas to 67% cover for reference, light, and remediated areas. High variability in species diversity and lack of difference in understory cover led us to consider life-form and plant families as indicators of military disturbance. Life-form successfully distinguished between plots based on military disturbances. Species that are Phanerophytes (trees and shrubs) were the most frequent life-form encountered in sites that experienced light infantry training. Therophytes (annuals) were the least common life-form in reference and light training areas. Chamaephytes (plants with their buds slightly above ground) were the least frequent life-form in moderate and remediation sites. Heavy training sites supported no Chamaephytes or Hemicryptophytes (plants with dormant buds at ground level). The heavy, moderate, remediated, and reference sites were all dominated by Cryptophytes (plants with underground buds) possibly because of their ability to withstand both military disturbance and ground fires (the natural disturbance of longleaf pine forests). Analysis of soils collected from each transect revealed that depth of the A layer of soil was significantly higher in reference and light training areas which may explain the life-form distributions. In addition, the diversity of plant families and, in particular, the presence of grasses and composites were indicative of training and remediation history. These results are supported by prior analysis of life-form distribution subsequent to other disturbances and demonstrate the ability of life-form and plant families to distinguish between military disturbances in longleaf pine forests. 

Dale, V. H., A. W. King, et al. (1996). Ecological Modeling for Military Land Use Decision Support: Interim Progress Report for Ecological Modeling (Project CS/758/4567). Interim report Oak Ridge, TN, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN, Environmental Sciences Division: 20 p.
	The principle objective of this project is the identification and development of ecological models that can be used in support of military land use decisions, especially those associated with the DoD training mission. The ecological models implemented as part of this project are components of the Conservation Thrust's 'DoD Land Management Toolbox' and are compatible with the Integrated Dynamic Landscape Analysis and Modeling System (IDLAMS) that serves as the integrating framework for the Toolbox.

Dale, V. H., A. W. King, et al. (1998). Spatially Explicit Ecological Models for Land-Use Decisions: Examples for Military Land Management. Final rept. Oak Ridge, TN, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN, Environmental Sciences Division: 46.
	Land management decisions need to balance the social, political, economic, ecological goals for the use of land. Often, however, the ecological goals for the land are not clearly stated, nor are the means of obtaining these goals specified. Therefore, this project has developed an approach for establishing ecological goals through the use of procedures to use ecological models that support land-use decisions: these models show how ecological goals for land use and management can be established and met. This approach is designed to be incorporated into a decision process that includes the other three goals for land use and management. This report describes the ecological models that were developed under SERDP project 758-62, Ecological Modeling in Support of Military Land-Use Decisions. First, the general approach is set forth, and then example models and their applications are described.

David, H. E., M. T. Hanson, et al. (2000). Conservation efforts of the endangered San Joaquin kit fox at Camp Roberts, California Army National Guard, California. Annual Conference of the Wildlife Society, Nashville, TN (USA).
	N/A

Davis, J. R., S. M. Cuddy, et al. (1991). "Testing of soil moisture prediction model for Army land managers." Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 117(4): 476-489.
	The ARC/INFO geographic information system (GIS) has been combined with the ARX spatial expert system and the SMSP soil moisture\-soil strength model to give the managers of a major Australian army training base the ability to predict damage from exercises. Soil types on the base, their wetness indices, and moisture status are biophysical inputs to the damage prediction model. ARX is used to predict the soil types and wetness indices. These results and antecedent rainfall are then used by SMSP to predict soil moisture and soil strength. ARC/INFO is used to store and map the results. In this paper we test the accuracy of the soil type and soil moisture predictions. Field trials demonstrated that the soil type predictions are acceptable, but that SMSP is unable to accurately predict soil moistures at individual sites, although predictions over transects of 1.5 km are acceptable. 

Davis, R., S. Cuddy, et al. (1990). An integrated GIS and model for assisting the managers of an Army training area. Watershed Planning and Analysis in Action. R. E. Riggins, E. B. Jones, R. Singh and P. A. Rechard. New York, American Society of Civil Engineers: 211-220.
	
DeBusk, W. F., B. L. Skulnick, et al. (2005). "Response of soil organic carbon dynamics to disturbance from military training " Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 60(4): 163-171.
	A field study was conducted at Fort Benning, Georgia (USA) to evaluate changes in soil organic carbon storage and partitioning in response to site disturbance from ground-based military training. Our primary goal was to investigate the utility of selected soil biogeochemical parameters for monitoring and assessment of land condition in conjunction with restoration and other management activities. Soil was sampled at sites representing a wide range of intensity of land disturbance due to mechanized training, foot and light vehicle traffic, and related activities. Soil chemical and microbial analyses included total carbon (C), total nitrogen (N), dissolved organic C, microbial biomass C, and soil respiration. All of these, with the exception of dissolved organic C, showed relatively consistent decreasing trends (significant at P <= 0.05) with increasing site disturbance, consistent with increased loss of topsoil in uplands and sedimentation in bottomlands. Concomitant increases in dissolved organic C:total C and microbial biomass C:total C appear to indicate that the relative bioavailability of soil C increased with soil disturbance despite a decrease in C storage.

Deinlein, R. and A. Boehm (2000). Modeling overland flow and soil erosion for a military training area in southern Germany. Soil Erosion. J. Schmidt. Berlin, Springer Verlag: 163-178.
	
Del Divine, D. (1992). Vegetational and ungulate utilization analysis of artificial wildlife watering units on White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, New Mexico State University.
	One season of data failed to reveal any differences in plant abundance or structure in areas surrounding water developments.  Poisonous plant species were not more abundant at watering units

Delaney, D. K., L. L. Pater, et al. (2002). Assessment of Training Noise Impacts on the Red Cockaded Woodpecker:1998-2000, U.S. Army corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 101 p.
	No abstract

Demarais, S., D. J. Tazik, et al. (1999). Ecosystems of disturbed ground. Ecosystems of the World, 16. L. R. Walker. Amsterdam, New York, Elsevier: 385-395.
	
Diaz, E. and A. Massol-Deya (2003). "Trace element composition in forage samples from a military target range, three agricultural areas, and one natural area in Puerto Rico." Caribbean Journal of Science 39(2): 215-220.
	Information about trace element composition in vegetation from tropical environments is scarce. Trace elements were evaluated on vegetation samples collected at the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facilities (AFWTF) in Vieques, agricultural areas in Vieques and mainland Puerto Rico, and at the Guanica State Forest. Analyses were conducted using atomic absorption after dry-ashing of samples and extraction with acid. Crops in Vieques contained more lead (p < 0.05) and cadmium (p < 0.10) than in mainland Puerto Rico. Similar results were observed for lead and cobalt in Syringodium filiforme, Calotropis procera, and Sporobolus virginicus from the AFWTF. The presence of similar trace element profiles in distant terrestrial and marine plant species suggests the presence of different environmental conditions.

Diersing, V. (1992). Overview of the nature of impacts and problems associated with managing roadside vegetation on army installations. 71st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (USA).
	N/A

Diersing, V. E., J. A. Courson, et al. (1990). Climatic Basis for Planning Military Training Operations and Land Maintenance Activities. Technical rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 27 p.
	Military training exercises are generally scheduled without consideration of annual variation in climatic conditions. Thus, many heavy, mechanized maneuvers are inadvertently conducted when soils are likely to be wet. This causes needless damage to soil and vegetation which reduces the amount of additional training use the land can receive. This report presents the results of an investigation of the utility of long-term precipitation and temperature data for military land-use planning. The probability of weekly precipitation can be determined for each installation and a climate diagram prepared. Military trainers use of graphic presentation can be determined for each installation and a climate diagram prepared. Military trainers can use graphic presentations of this data to schedule major exercises when the probability of wet soils is low, thus reducing the risk of excessive environmental damage. Similarly, military land managers can use the graphs to identify optimum rehabilitation schedules. 

Diersing, V. E., B. R. Jones, et al. (1987). Juniper Chaining: A Vegetative and Soil Erosion Assessment of a Method of Rangeland Improvement on Fort Hood, Texas. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 45 p.
	This report presents the results of an investigation conducted on Fort Hood, TX, during 1984-1985 to determine (1) the effect of mechanical chaining on the elimination of mature stands of Ashe juniper trees, (2) the natural reestablishment of herbaceous vegetation cover following chaining, and (3) the effects of chaining on soil erosion rates. Results showed that chaining is effective in eliminating pure stands of juniper trees (99 percent canopy reduction) and is a viable option for increasing the amount of available training land while maintaining land resources. Thirteen months following chaining, the cover produced by the invasion of herbaceous plants (38 percent canopy cover) was sufficient to protect the soils from excessive erosion. However, caution should be exercised when chaining on slopes greater than about 5 to 10 percent or on shallow or other soils of low productivity.

Diersing, V. E. and W. D. Severinghaus (1984). Effects of Tactical Vehicle Training on the Lands of Fort Carson, Colorado. An Ecological Assessment. Final report. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 49 p.
	Extensive field studies were conducted at Fort Carson, CO, to quantify the effects of Army tracked vehicle on mammals, birds, vegetation, and soils. Ecological variation between two major habitats--pinyon-juniper woodland and shortgrass prairie--was quantified. Soil disaggregation and increased bulk density resulting from training activities were observed on both habitats. On the pinyon-juniper site, tree and shrub cover decreased, herbaceous cover increased, open-field and edge bird guilds increased, and the woodland bird guilds decreased. On the short-grass prairie site, perennial grass cover decreased, woody forb production increased, and open-field bird guilds decreased. On both sites, mammals favoring woody habitats increased. Originator supplied keywords include: Fort Carson, CO; tracked vehicles; ecology; training.

Diersing, V. E. and W. D. Severinghaus (1985). Wildlife as an indicator of site quality and site trafficability during army training maneuvers. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory.
	
Diersing, V. E., R. B. Shaw, et al. (1992). "Us Army Land Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) Program." Environmental Management 16(3): 405-414.
	The US Army Land Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) program is a standardized method of data collection, analysis, and reporting designed to meet multiple goals and objectives. The method utilizes vascular plant inventories, permanent field plot data, and wildlife inventories. Vascular plant inventories are used for environmental documentation, training of personnel, species identification during LCTA implementation, and as a survey for state and federal endangered or threatened species. The permanent field plot data documents the vegetational, edaphic, topographic, and disturbance characteristics of the installation. Inventory plots are allocated in a stratified random fashion across the installation utilizing a geographic information system that integrates satellite imagery and soil survey information. Ground cover, canopy cover. woody plant density, slope length, slope gradient, soil information, and disturbance data are collected at each plot. Plot data are used to: (1) describe plant communities, (2) characterize wildlife and threatened and endangered species habitat, (3) document amount and kind of military and nonmilitary disturbance, (4) determine the impact of military training on vegetation and soil resources, (5) estimate soil erosion potential, (6) classify land as to the kind and amount of use it can support, (7) determine allowable use estimates for tracked vehicle training, (8) document concealment resources, (9) identify lands that require restoration and evaluate the effectiveness of restorative techniques, and (10) evaluate potential acquisition Property. Wildlife inventories survey small and midsize mammals, birds, bats, amphibians, and reptiles. Data from these surveys can be used for environmental documentation, to identify state and federal endangered and threatened species, and to evaluate the impact Of military activities on wildlife populations. Short- and long-term monitoring of permanent field plots is used to evaluate and adjust land management decisions.

Diersing, V. E., R. B. Shaw, et al. (1988). "A Users Guide for Estimating Allowable Use of Tracked Vehicles on Non-Wooded Military Training Lands." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 43(2): 191-195.
	To avoid excessive soil erosion and insure the continued availability of U.S. military training lands, there must be a basis for estimating allowable levels of sustained tracked vehicle use. The allowable use management objective can be attained by establishing permanent line transects in areas representative of each ecological response unit.  The point-intercept method is employed along each line transect to determine botanical composition, amounts of ground and canopy cover for untracked and tracked points, and percent of the surface tracked and untracked.  Soil samples are collected to determine soil erodibility.  Slope lengths and gradients are measured.  For each vehicle type, estimates are made of the average cross-country distance traveled per day (surface coverage is computed by adding the width of the tracks times distance traveled).  Estimates are made of the average number of years for tracked areas to regrow vegetation cover equivalent in C-value for the universal soil loss equation to untracked areas and the average number of years that a track mark remains visible.  With this information and using the USLE, maximum allowable use can be estimated for each ecological response unit.  Allowable use is calculated in tracked vehicle days per year (TVDs/year) for military trainers and percent surface disturbance for land manager.  Land managers verify that allowable use is not exceeded by measuring the percentage of the surface that appears tracked.  Adjustments in allowable use are based on trends in the amount of ground cover (detected by short-term monitoring) and by observing changes in botanical composition (detected by long-term monitoring).


Diersing, V. E., R. B. Shaw, et al. (1989). User's Guide for Estimating Allowable Use of Tracked Vehicles on Nonwooded Military Training Lands. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 5 p.
	To avoid excessive soil erosion and insure the continued availability of U.S. military training lands, there must be a basis for estimating allowable levels of sustained tracked vehicle use. The allowable use management objective can be attained by establishing permanent line transects in areas representative of each ecological response unit. The point-intercept method is employed along each line transect to determine botanical composition, amounts of ground and canopy cover for untracked and tracked points, and percent of the surface tracked and untracked. Soil samples are collected to determine soil erodibility. For each vehicle type, estimates are made of the average cross-country distance traveled per day (surface coverage is computed by adding the width of the tracks times distance traveled). Estimates are made of the average number of years for tracked areas to regrow vegetation cover equivalent in C-value for the universal soil loss equation to untracked areas and the average number of years that a track mark remains visible. Allowable use is calculated in tracked vehicle days per year (TVDs/year) for military trainers and percent surface disturbance for land managers. Reprints. (sdw)

Diersing, V. E., D. J. Tazik, et al. (1990). Management Options for Mitigating Natural Resource Training Impacts on Army Installations. Technical rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 15 p.
	As land uses and the condition of natural resources change, military natural resource managers are constantly confronted with new land management problems. They spend considerable time and resources trying to identify ways to minimize military impacts to soil and vegetation. This report serves as a checklist of management actions that can streamline the decision-making process and increase the likelihood that managers will consider the full range of alternative actions. The five basic management techniques are: (1) limit total use; (2) redistribute use; (3) modify kinds of uses; (4) alter the behavior of use; and (5) manipulate the natural resources for increased durability. Several alternative actions that can be taken for each of these techniques are outlined and discussed. Keywords: Land use; Army facilities/training; Environmental impact. (EDC)

Dilustro, J. J., B. S. Collins, et al. (2003). Soil nitrogen cycling in mixed forests of varying soil texture at Fort Benning, Georgia. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	
Dilustro, J. J., B. S. Collins, et al. (2002). "Soil texture, land-use intensity, and vegetation of Fort Benning upland forest sites." Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 129(4): 289-297.
	Federal lands may harbour much of the diversity of upland pine (Pinus)-oak (Quercus)-hickory (Carya) forests in the southeastern USA Fall Line Sandhills region. These forests are managed throughout the region; species composition is influenced by topography, soil composition, periodic natural and prescribed fires, and forest harvesting practices. Our objective was to describe the canopy and ground layer vegetation of upland sites at Fort Benning, Georgia that are managed primarily for longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) (thinned, burned at 3 year intervals) and differ in soil texture (from sandy to clayey) and intensity of military training (lighter dismounted infantry vs. heavier mechanized training). We characterized surface soil texture and land use disturbance of 32 sites, each 400x400 m, and asked if canopy and ground layer community measures (species composition and richness, basal area, abundance) differed among sites on the basis of soil texture or land-use. There was significant interaction between land use and soil texture, with a gradient of soil texture (% clay) from clayey sites within light training areas, to sandy sites in heavier training areas. Road-like features, including active and remnant trails, roads, and vehicle tracks or trails were the most frequent and abundant disturbance feature. Number of disturbance features per site did not differ among land use/surface soil texture categories. Differences in ground layer and canopy composition among sites reflected disturbance intensity; differences in canopy composition also reflected the proportion of pine. Species richness of ground layer vegetation differed among surface soil texture/land use categories. There was a richness gradient from heavily disturbed sites with clayey soil, through lightly disturbed sites, to heavily disturbed sites with sandy soil. Our results suggest upland pine-oak-hickory forests at Fort Benning range from sandhills scrub oak-pine to pine-hardwood to oak-hickory dominated forests, with greater species diversity in the ground layer of clayey sites. Forestry practices and disturbances associated with mechanized military training favour pine dominance, and maintain open-site, successional or fire-tolerant species in the ground layer. Although intense management toward pine monocultures can reduce within-stand diversity, federal installations such as Fort Benning may help conserve pine-oak-hickory forests in the rapidly developing Sandhills region..

Dobbins, R. A. (1938). Vegetation of the Northern Virginia Military Lands of Ohio, The Ohio Stat University.
	above citation is all that could be found about this dissertation.  Unkown if it is related to this literature search.

Doe, W. W., III (1992). Simulation of the spatial and temporal effects of Army maneuvers on watershed response. Fort Collins, Colorado State University: 320 p.
	The environmental impacts of large scale mechanized military maneuvers on U.S. Army training lands are a critical natural resources management issue for the 1990s. Many Army training lands are located in semiarid regions of the United States where infrequent rainfall events play a major role in sustaining and shaping the landscape and its water resources. The extent to which maneuvers alter the rainfall-runoff response of natural watersheds within these training lands is not widely understood and is the focus of this dissertation research.

Detailed field investigations and computer simulations have been performed for a 50-square mile watershed, the Taylor Arroyo, located within the U.S. Army Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS) in southeastern Colorado. Innovative land management practices have been implemented within the watershed to minimize the effects of maneuvers and preserve its natural characteristics. The possible effects of hypothetical maneuver scenarios on the watershed under a range of rainfall conditions have been simulated using a two-dimensional, physically based hydrologic model, CASC2D. CASC2D is an event-based model which divides the watershed into grid elements and can represent the spatial variability present in the watershed. The principal hydrologic processes of infiltration, overland flow, and channel flow are simulated and can be spatially analyzed. The model also incorporates dynamic visualization graphics portraying the areas disturbed by maneuvers and their time varying hydrologic response to rainfall excitation.

The Geographic Resources Analysis Support System (GRASS), a faster-based GIS, has been used to spatially characterize the Taylor Arroyo watershed for model input. The spatial outputs from CASC2D have been imported into GRASS for detailed analysis and map display. The integrated use of GRASS and CASC2D facilitates faster data manipulation and transfer and enhances the spatial and temporal analysis of maneuver impacts on the watershed. This integrated approach provides a valuable research tool for the scientific study of watershed impacts. It also provides the land manager with a decision-support system which can analyze the spatial effects of maneuvers and enhance the understanding of this complex management issue.

Doe, W. W., III, P. Y. Julien, et al. (1997). Maneuversheds and watersheds: modeling the hydrologic effects of mechanized training on military lands. Water Resources Education, Training, and Practice: Opportunities for the Next Century, American Water Resources Association: 767-776 
	
Doe, W. W., III, R. B. Shaw, et al. (1999). "Locations and environments of U.S. Army training and testing lands: an ecoregional framework for assessment." Federal Facilities Environmental Journal 10(3): 9-26.
	The U.S. Army manages over 12 million acres of federal training and testing lands contained within military installations throughout the 50 United States. These lands are a critical national asset for defense readiness, dedicated to providing realistic training and testing environments for army units and equipment. The locations and physiographic diversity of the Army's current land inventory is a function of historical precedent, modern-day land expansions, and requirements for strategic projection of forces. Many Army lands are relatively undeveloped, providing important ecological settings for a variety of flora and fauna, including many threatened and endangered species. As a responsible land steward, the Army is committed to protection and sustainable use of these natural resources, with concurrent benefit to both the army and the public. Army training and testing activities can cause environmental impacts that may be detrimental to the long-term sustainment of ecological functions. These realities pose significant land management challenges to the Army. The application of established ecological frameworks for strategically assessing land-use impacts and land management approaches is demonstrated for 31 major Army installations, using Bailey's "ecoregion classification system," developed by the U.S. Forest Service. The Ecoregions framework is used to (1) classify and catalog the ecological diversity of Army lands, (2) provide a comparative framework for assessing land resiliency from Army impacts, and (3) extrapolate knowledge of perturbed ecosystem behavior and response from one army installation to others in similar ecoregions. 

Doresky, J., K. Morgan, et al. (2001). "Effects of military activity on reproductive success of Red- cockaded Woodpeckers." Journal of Field Ornithology 72(2): 305-311.
	Although significant numbers of the federally endangered Red- cockaded Woodpecker (Picoides borealis) occur at military installations, little research has been initiated to determine what effects military activities have on the birds. From 1994- 1996 we collected data at Ft. Banning Military Installation, Georgia, to assess the effects of selected military activities on reproductive success of the birds. Noise and vibration levels were recorded at or directly adjacent to active woodpecker clusters that received significant use by the military on a regular basis (i.e., firing of small arms and artillery). Identical data were collected at active clusters that were not normally used by military personnel and that we perceived to be relatively free of such disturbances. Surprisingly, we found no significant differences in noise or vibration levels between treatments and controls. There also were no significant differences between treatment and control sites with regard to the numbers of eggs, nestlings, adults, return rates of adults feeding young, or masses of nestlings and adults. Habitat assessments revealed no differences in basal area or midstory density; however, understory was significantly more pronounced at treatment sites.

Douglas, P. and N. Hastings (2000). Floristic Survey of Sheridan Training Area, Sheridan County, Wyoming, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Douglas, P. and N. Hastings (2002). Floristic Survey of Lovell Training Area Big Horn County, Wyoming, Wyoming National Guard.
	
Douglas, P. P. and N. E. Hastings (2001). Floristic Survey of Combat Maneuver Training Center, Hohenfels, Bavaria Germany, 7th Army Training Command, 100th Area Support Group.
	
Douglas, P. P. and N. E. Hastings (2002). Floristic Survey of Lander Local Training Area.  Fremont County, Wyoming, Wyoming Army National Guard.
	
Douglas, P. P. and C. A. Popolizio (1997). Floristic Survey of Schofield Barracks and Makua Military Reservation, Oahu, Hawaii., Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Douglas, P. P., R. B. Shaw, et al. (1989). "Rediscovery of Tetramolopium-Arenarium Subsp Arenarium Var Arenarium (Asteraceae, Astereae) on the Pohkuloa Training Area, Hawaii." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 76(4): 1182-1185.
	
Douglas, P. P. and R. M. Smith (1997). Survey for Plant Taxa of Special Concern.  Limestone Hills Training Area, Broadwater County, Montana, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Douse, J. (2000). Mapping Relative Risk of Wildfire on the West Point Military Reservation.
	
Dove, L. P. (2001). Landscape Metrics to Assess Habitat Suitability for Conversation Bird Species in the Southeastern United States. Final technical rept, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Environmental Lab: 17 p.
	Habitat fragmentation is a major factor in the decline of biological diversity and is an example of how changes in spatial parameters of a habitat can impact species survival. The degree to which a given species is affected by habitat fragmentation is dependent on the complex interaction of the habitat requirements of the species and the shape, size, and makeup of the fragmented habitat. Conservation of the biological diversity of a landscape would be facilitated if there was a way to determine the impact of habitat changes on species of interest. The objective of this study was to use existing U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Land Use Land Cover (LULC) and the Breeding bird Survey (BBS) data from the 1970-1976 time frame to determine if kilometer-resolution horizontal spatial pattern metrics are suitable indicators of habitat suitability for conservation birds. The study included 15 conservation bird species with 53 BBS routes per species. It focused on using existing data in predicting bird abundance and evaluating the sensitivity of predictive models to varied sizes of landscape analysis units. Landscape structure was quantified using 12 spatial pattern metrics calculated from USGS LULC data. The metrics were summarized into three unique variables using principal components analysis techniques. Multiple regression analyses of bird abundance, as a function of the three variables, were used to explore the sensitivity of each bird species to landscape structure at various distances from the BBS route. Variables computed from the nearest distance were the most useful. Five of the species studied had models with R(sup 2) values greater than 35 percent. Of these, the wood thrush, Kentucky warbler, and prothonotary warbler, were sensitive to the habitat composition and forest configuration variables, while the hooded warbler and white-eyed vireo were sensitive to the forest configuration and landscape diversity/interspersion variables.

Downs, J. L., N. A. Cadoret, et al. (1994). Vegetation survey of knapweed on the Yakima Training Center - 1992. Richland, WA, Battelle Pacific Northwest Labs, Funder: Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 29 p.
	This report summarizes and discusses the results of a vegetation survey conducted in 1992 on a portion of the Yakima Training Center (YTC). Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL) conducted this survey and a similar survey in 1991 for the U.S. Department of the Army. The objectives of the survey were to evaluate the impact of the herbicide picloram on forbs where aerial applications of picloram were made in 1988, 1989, and 1991 to control knapweed infestations. Forbs are of special interest because they are an important part of the spring and summer diet of the western sage grouse, which is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service candidate species for the threatened and endangered list. We also conducted a limited evaluation of the effectiveness of the spray program in controlling the spread of knapweed. Percent plant canopy cover and number of forbs were measured on 120 transacts on the herbicide-treated and untreated control areas. Herbicide treatment in 1991 resulted in a significant reduction in knapweed based on percent cover and density. The treatment areas also all had lower percent canopy cover of perennial forbs and fewer perennial forbs compared to control areas. Canopy cover of shrubs and annual, biennial, and perennial forbs measured on the YTC increased between the 1991 and 1992 survey, which may indicate a recovery of these vegetation types after disturbance. These increases also could reflect the mild 1992 winter and superior growing conditions in the spring of 1992. We recommend that these vegetation transacts continue to be monitored for an additional growing season to evaluate (1) whether knapweed increases to its previous abundance in the 1991 herbicide-treated area, (2) the efficacy of herbicide application on transacts along roadways, and (3) the increase in invasive annuals in herbicide-treated areas and the possible effects on community vegetation structure and sage grouse habitat.

Duda, J. J., D. C. Freeman, et al. (2004). "Estimating disturbance effects from military training using developmental instability and physiological measures of plant stress." Ecological Indicators 3(4): 251-262.
	We used developmental instability, water potential, and variable fluorescence to determine if populations of winged sumac (Rhus copallinum) were being negatively effected by military training disturbance. We established nine sites that represented a land-use disturbance gradient with three impact levels (low, medium, and high), the effects mostly due to mechanized infantry training maneuvers. Although mean values of developmental instability, water potential, and variable fluorescence differed significantly among sites, the patterns did not consistently differentiate sites relative to the disturbance gradient. At the population level, some measures of developmental instability and variable fluorescence were positively correlated. All nine sites consisted of habitat mosaics, with the abundance of higher quality habitat patches and canopy gaps closely related to habitat impacts. It may be that R. copallinum is selecting similar micro-environments at all sites and therefore minimizing inter-site variation in stress measures, despite large differences in overall habitat condition. Our results call for caution in developing ecological indicators using the response of physiological and morphological measures from a single plant species. 

Duda, J. J. and A. K. Krzysik (1998). Radiotelemetry Study of a Desert Tortoise Population: Sand Hill Training Mea, Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center, Twentynine Palms, California. Final rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 75 p.
	A desert tortoise radiotelemetry study was conducted at Sand Hill Training Area of the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center (MCAGCC), Twentynine Palms, CA, in the southcentral Mojave Desert. Two square study plots were established, each 9 km(2). Twenty-nine adult tortoises with approximately equal numbers of both genders were monitored for 2 years (1995-1996) with AVM radiotelemetry transmitters. A number of parameters were evaluated for desert tortoises: home range size, activity levels, burrow use, annual weight changes, and burrow metrics (condition or age, association with perennial vegetation, width, height, and depth). Comparisons were made with a simultaneous study in a similar, but pristine, habitat at Pinto Basin in Joshua Tree National Park. Statistical comparisons were made for three parameters: home range size, number of burrows used, and distance traveled between successive recaptures.

Dudley, J. P., J. R. Ginsberg, et al. (2002). "Effects of war and civil strife on wildlife and wildlife habitats." Conservation Biology 16(2): 319-329.
	Historically, the no-man's land created by human warfare often protected wildlife and habitats by limiting human incursions and human population densities within disputed territories. Relatively few examples of this phenomenon have been identified in conjunction with recent and ongoing wars in developing countries, however. Modern wars and civil strife are typically associated with detrimental effects on wildlife and wildlife habitats. Most cited instances of contemporary war-zone refuges refer to military security areas that are functionally and geographically distinct from actual battlefields or areas subject to armed civil conflicts. The disappearance of the war- zone refuge effect is attributable to modern trends in the scale, intensity, or technologies associated with military conflicts and violent civil strife. Munitions and chemical agents exert both immediate and residual effects, direct and indirect, on wildlife and habitats. Overharvesting of wildlife and vegetation in conflict zones exacerbates existing constraints on the access to natural resources, threatening both the resource base and the livelihoods of local communities dependent on these resources. Socioeconomic studies have identified causative linkages between environmental degradation and violent civil strife, with the scarcity of natural resources fostering the emergence of war and civil conflicts in developing countries. Wars and civil strife create positive feedback that reinforces and amplifies interactions between and among ecosystem vulnerability, resource availability, and violent conflict. Strong and flexible partnerships between local communities, nongovernmental organizations, and international institutions may be a critical factor in mitigating the effects of war on wildlife by helping to maintain continuity in conservation efforts during periods of political instability.

Duncan, L. K., J. J. Dilustro, et al. (2003). Avian response to forest management and military training at Fort Benning, Georgia. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts 
	
Eastes, J. W., G. L. Mason, et al. (2004). "Thermal signature characteristics of vehicle/terrain interaction disturbances: implications for battlefield vehicle classification." Applied Spectroscopy 58(5): 510-515.
	Thermal emissivity spectra (8–14 mm) of track impressions/background
were determined in conjunction with operation of six military
vehicle types, T-72 and M1 Tanks, an M2 Bradley Fighting
Vehicle, a 5-ton truck, a D7 tractor, and a High Mobility Multipurpose
Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), over diverse soil surfaces to
determine if vehicle type could be related to track thermal signatures.
Results suggest soil compaction and fragmentation/pulverization
are primary parameters affecting track signatures and that
soil and vehicle/terrain-contact type determine which parameter
dominates. Steel-tracked vehicles exert relatively low ground-contact
pressure but tend to fragment/pulverize soil more so than do
rubber-tired vehicles, which tend mainly to compact. In quartz-rich,
lean clay soil tracked vehicles produced impressions with spectral
contrast of the quartz reststrahlen features decreased from that of
the background. At the same time, 5-ton truck tracks exhibited increased
contrast on the same surface, suggesting that steel tracks
fragmented soil while rubber tires mainly produced compaction.
The structure of materials such as sand and moist clay-rich river
sediment makes them less subject to further fragmentation/pulverization;
thus, compaction was the main factor affecting signatures
in these media, and both tracked and wheeled vehicles created impressions
with increased spectral contrast on these surfaces. These
results suggest that remotely sensed thermal signatures could differentiate
tracked and wheeled vehicles on terrain in many areas
of the world of strategic interest. Significant applications include
distinguishing visually/spectrally identical lightweight decoys from
actual threat vehicles.

Eckert, R. E., JR., M. K. Wood, et al. (1979). "Impacts of Off-Road Vehicles on Infiltration and Sediment Production of Two Desert Soils." Journal of Range Management 32(5): 394-397.
	Although scientists generally agree that off-road vehicle (ORV) traffic is damaging to fragile desert habitats, many of the actual site-specific effects of such activity are unknown. Accordingly, the objective of this study was to evaluate the initial impacts of two types of ORVs: motorcycle and 4-wheel drive traffic, on the infiltration rate and sediment production characteristics of two desert soils in response to simulated rainfall. The study was conducted at two sites in southern Nevada on two major types of surface soils: the coppice soil on the low small dunes under shrubs, and the mostly barren interspace soil between shrubs. Motorcycle (50 passes), truck (20 passes), and control treatments were imposed in August 1975 at both locations, at the Blue Diamond site again in January 1976, and at the Crystal Springs site again in April 1976. Different dates were used in 1976 to obtain similar surface moisture conditions on the two sites at time of treatment. Results indicated that infiltration was similar for both soils although more sediment was produced from the surface with exposed mineral soil than from the gravel-mulched surface. Infiltration was from 3-13 times greater on the coppice soil than on the interspace soil, while sedimentation was 10-20 times greater on the interspace soil. Infiltration was less and sediment yield greater after soil was disturbed by vehicular traffic and after reformation of surface crust, particularly on interspace soil. It is concluded that ORV traffic is a major factor in the management of recreation lands, and ways must be found to reduce the damage. (Tickes-Arizona) 

Ellis, D. J. (1997). "Unlikely Havens." The American Gardener.
	
Elstein, D. (2004). From Trash to Grass Revegetating Army Training Grounds. Agricultural Research: 15.
	No abstract 

Entcheva-Campbell, P. K., E. M. Middleton, et al. (2003). Detection of changes in vegetation properties induced by military range land-contaminants containing TNT. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	
Eriksson, J. (1976). "Influence of extremely heavy traffic on clay soil." Grundförbättring 27: 33-51.
	
Evans, D. E., W. A. Mitchell, et al. (1998). Species Profile: Indiana Bat ( Myotis sodalis) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 28 p.
	The Indiana bat is a medium-sized member of the genus Myotis first described by Miller and Allen (1928). Body length of adults is 7.5 to 10 cm (3.0 to 3.9 in.); wingspan is 24 to 27 cm (9.4 to 10.6 in.); hindfoot length is 8 to 10 mm (0.31 to 0.39 in.); and individuals typically weigh 7 to 9 g (0.25 to 0.32 oz) (Humphrey 1978, Hamilton and Whitaker 1979, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1983, Clawson 1987).

Dorsal fur of the Indiana bat is finely textured and generally grayish-chestnut in color. Ventral fur is pinkish-white with slate-gray coloration at the base. A combination of several characteristics is used to distinguish the Indiana bat from similar species. These include the number and length of toe hairs, length and shape of the tragus (a fleshy
appendage at the ear canal), and shape of the calcar (a small bone supporting the tail membrane) (Brack 1988). The species is often confused with the little brown bat (Myotis
lucifugus), but the fur of the Indiana bat is not as glossy.

Fang, S. F., S. Wente, et al. (2002). "Uncertainty analysis of predicted disturbance from off-road vehicular traffic in complex landscapes at fort hood." Environmental Management 30(2): 199-208.
	The US Army Engineering Research Development Center (ERDC) uses a modified form of the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) to estimate spatially explicit rates of soil erosion by water across military training facilities. One modification involves the RUSLE support practice factor (P factor), which is used to account for the effect of disturbance by human activities on erosion rates, Since disturbance from off-road military vehicular traffic moving through complex landscapes varies spatially, a spatially explicit nonlinear regression model (disturbance model) is used to predict the distribution of P factor values across a training facility. This research analyzes the uncertainty in this model's disturbance predictions for the Fort Hood training facility in order to determine both the spatial distribution of prediction uncertainty and the contribution of different error sources to that uncertainty. This analysis shows that a three-category vegetation map used by the disturbance model was the greatest source of prediction uncertainty, especially for the map categories shrub and tree. In areas mapped as grass, modeling error (uncertainty associated with the model parameter estimates) was the largest uncertainty source. These results indicate that the use of a high-quality vegetation map that is periodically updated to reflect current vegetation distributions, would produce the greatest reductions in disturbance prediction uncertainty.

Fehmi, J. S., S. Danzer, et al. (2004). Agave palmeri inflorescence production on Fort Huachuca, Arizona, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 34 p.
	Agave (Agave palmeri) is important to Fort Huachuca because of its status as a critical resource for the lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris curasoae). The bat depends on agave flower nectar as a primary food source in late summer and early fall. Fort Huachuca contains some of the few remaining roosting sites for this bat in the southwestern United States, and also has abundant agave stands, which are distributed throughout the grasslands. Plant density data were obtained from 29 randomly chosen flowering plants. Density ranged from 700 to 2200 plants per hectare with approximately 10 percent flowering stalks. Analysis of the density data indicated that agave plants were significantly and substantially clustered around flowering plants. Individual plants seem to flower based on several criteria including basal diameter and presence of neighbors. The closer and larger the neighboring agave were, the more likely a particular plant was to flower. Ungulate herbivory affected 50 percent of the agave inflorescences. Given the lack of predators and minimal hunting, herbivore numbers seem likely to increase, putting greater pressure on inflorescence numbers especially in years when fewer plants flower. Other than the loss of inflorescences, the agave population at Fort Huachuca appears robust and self-sustaining.

Fehmi, J. S., T. Farmer, et al. (2001). Impacts of Military Vehicle Training Activities on Vegetation: Bibliography With Abstracts. Final bibliography rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab, Engineer Research and Development Center: 51 p.
	Vehicle impacts are an important military training issue because, in order to adequately train for combat, military training must occur in all weather conditions and at all times of the year. Vehicles must be allowed to maneuver over terrain and distances similar to what is expected in a battlefield environment. These training activities must be balanced with legal requirements pertaining to natural resources protection (Endangered Species Act, Clean Water Act, etc.) and the need to sustain the condition of the land to support military training over the long term. This bibliography focuses on identifying the information available for military impacts on vegetation as distinct from those concerning air quality, water quality, noise pollution, soil contamination, and direct impacts on animals. The available literature on impacts of military vehicles on military lands was surveyed. The bibliography has been divided into two parts: (1) military references developed from military vehicles or military lands and representing primary observations or research, and (2) supporting references that were not developed from the military but which have applicability to training activities on military lands by military vehicles or are derivative from primary works on the military. This report contains 61 references with abstracts.

Fehmi, J. S. and B. MacAllister (2005). Available conservation research for Fort Bliss, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 44 p.
	In the last 10 years there have been numerous conservation-related research projects conducted on and related to Fort Bliss, Texas. These projects, while supporting Fort Bliss’s conservation goals, have been done by numerous federal agencies and other non-governmental organizations, universities, and consultants. The resulting combination of technical reports, masters theses, doctoral dissertations, research articles, and proceedings papers make it difficult for managers to distill the appropriate pieces of the research into answers to their land management questions. This project was initiated to summarize and consolidate the available research on conservation, natural resources, and land management at Fort Bliss into a more cohesive and usable form. A secondary objective was to provide a number of the reports in electronic form for easier access and to help ensure that the reports remain available beyond the one copy or the few printed copies now in existence.

Fehmi, J. S., R. L. McLeese, et al. (2003). Initial Assessment of the Soil and Vegetation of the Illinois National Guard Sparta Training Area. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army), Engineer Research and Development Center: 114 p.
	The Illinois National Guard (ILNG) is acquiring a new 2800-acre training area near Sparta, Illinois. This acquisition is important in that it allows the National Guard units in southern Illinois a readily available place to train, which will increase training effectiveness and save time and money through decreased travel costs associated with using the existing training area in the northern part of the state. The recent acquisition of the Sparta training area represents a unique opportunity to gather baseline data before any training takes place. This data will be valuable in that it gives the Army the unique opportunity to learn about the conditions before and after training as well as strengthening any future empirically collected research data. This represents a fundamental knowledge gap in much of the current research on Army lands and represents a high priority, high payoff area of research. The initial plant and soil data were collected using a grid-based sampling protocol to allow uniform and unbiased cover. The specific sampling protocols for each type of data follows in the vegetation and soils sections and the data are included in the appendices.

Fimbel, R. A. (1992). Restoring Drastically Disturbed Sites Within the Pygmy Pine-oak Forests of Southern New Jersey's Pinelands National Reserve (Pinus Rigida, Pisolithus Tinctorius, Myrica Pensylvanica, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey - New Brunswick: 337 p.
	The Pinelands National Reserve and UNESCO Biosphere encompass a large portion of southern New Jersey's Pine Barrens.  Within the core preservation zone of these Reserves lies the Warren Grove Weapons Range, a military installation where exercises during the past 50 years have devastated portions of the indigenous pygmy pine-oak forest.  In 1987, restoration efforts were initiated to identify materials and techniques that would promote a diverse and productive native plant community atop drastically disturbed portions of the Range.  Trial plantings were designed to examine fertilizer and sewage compost fertility amendments; the response of plant mixtures incorporating the local flora, including the dwarfed race of pitch pine (Pinus rigida); the influence of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius on the growth of pines and associated species; mulch applications to conserve moisture and add organic matter; and, the interaction of pitch pine and the N$_2$-fixing shrub !
bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica).  Studies involved both field plots and greenhouse experiments.

  Following two growing seasons, test plantings exhibited 25% of the vegetation biomass found in surrounding pine-oak communities, 50% canopy closure, and levels of diversity comparable to those occurring in the surrounding reference areas.  Greatest vegetation responses were achieved following the application of 16 Mg/ha compost and the establishment of pitch pine seedlings.  Amendments of seeded grasses, P.  tinctorius, and mulch, failed to enhance plant establishment and growth.  Finally, a greenhouse study examining the interactions among pitch pine, bayberry, and their respective symbionts P.  tinctorius and Frankia, demonstrated competitive rather than complementary associations.  Plants expressed differences in productivity, biomass partitioning, and nutrient concentrations in response to intra- and inter-specific plantings.  No evidence exists to conclude nitrogen fixed in the nodules of bayberry reached adjacent pine seedlings during the two years of the study.

  Guidelines for restoring drastically disturbed sites in the Pine Plains are presented.  Considerations for the application of these techniques to other sites in the Pine Barrens, as well as additional activities warranting future research, are briefly discussed.

Fischer, J. E. (1997). Population Dynamics of Small Terrestrial Mammals Inhabiting Eight Habitat Types on Fort Polk, Lousiana, Steven F. Austin State University: 173 p.
	Small mammal investigations took place on eight habitats on Fort Polk Military Reservation in Vernon Parish, Louisiana. This study examines several population parameters of small mammals including diversity, relative abundance and frequency, breeding seasons, and male-female sex ratios for each habitat. Each habitat had two transects placed 20 m apart, and had 25 Sherman live traps per transect set at 10 m intervals. Nine species occurred during the study including eight rodents and one shrew. The most diverse population occurred on the prairie mixed pine hardwood, followed by the pitcher plant bog, and pine hardwood transition, respectively. Cotton mice (Peromyscus gossypinus), southern short-tailed shrews (Blarilla carolinensis), and fulvous harvest mice (Reithrodontomys fulvescens) were the three most abundant species, respectively. Cotton mice strongly associated with water, occurring only in habitats near intermittent, or flowing, creeks. Fulvous harvest mice occupied open fields, while marsh rice rats only inhabited the bottomland hardwood habitat.

Fischer, R. L., Jr. (2001). Modeling radiometric effects on airborne multispectral videography, George Mason University: 242 p.
	Observing the Earth through remote technologies allows for the extraction of synoptic data that is difficult to match with ground-based measurements. Over time, remote sensing instruments and associated processing algorithms have improved in both spectral and spatial resolution. Currently, commercial spaceborne and airborne imaging systems are capable of producing data at one-meter spatial resolution. To fully utilize these improved data sources, it is critical that processing and analysis algorithms keep pace with instrument advances.

  This dissertation describes models and algorithms used to correct high spatial resolution airborne imagery for radiometric effects. These radiometric effects include topography and view-angle (also termed bidirectional reflectance). Also studied were radiometric and geometric calibration issues. The sensor used for this study was a four camera off-the-shelf system which is capable of collecting imagery in the visible through near-infrared (0.4&ndash;1.0 &mu;m) spectral region.

  Three topographic correction models were applied to one-meter spatial resolution imagery collected over Fort Huachuca, Arizona, in October 1998. The model proposed by Ekstrand (1996) was successful in reducing topographic effects found in the semidesert grassland and Madrean forest communities. Spectral signature coefficient of variation, histogram range, and histogram normality all showed improvement after correction for both classes. Additionally, the optimal spatial resolution of the supporting Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was found to be 40 meters. This disagrees with previous research stating that the imagery to be corrected and the supporting DEM should be the same spatial resolution.

  Two bidirectional reflectance models were applied to 1.5 meter spatial resolution imagery collected over Parramore Island, Virginia, in May 1999. A modified version of a model proposed by Irons et al. (1991) was found to substantially reduce bidirectional reflectance effects over four vegetation communities. Spectral signature coefficient of variation and overlap pixel difference showed improvement after correction. Additionally, an unsupervised technique was developed to generate training data for model coefficient generation. This technique produces a large amount of training points, is relatively free of user bias, and can be used as a masking procedure to apply the correction models to the appropriate land-cover classes.

  Finally, the computational aspects of mosaic construction and sensor orientation calculation were examined. A distributed approach for pass-point generation was developed utilizing off-the-shelf hardware and software. The use of six processors was found to improve performance by a factor of 5.2 (measured by calculation time) when compared to a single processor. Products developed as part of the computational process are discussed. These included orthomosaics, anaglyphs, and digital elevation models.

  The radiometric correction models studied should be extendable to any high spatial resolution (airborne or spaceborne) multispectral or hyperspectral system. The end-to-end processing routines developed as part of this study will substantially increase the data throughput of digital multispectral videography systems.

Fowler, J. M., L. A. Torell, et al. (1994). "Competitive pricing for the McGregor range - implications for federal grazing fees." Journal of Range Management. 47(2): 155-158.
	Competitive bidding is an acceptable way to determine an efficient price to both buyer and seller. The quasi-competitive bid structure used to price federal forage and lessor-provided services on the McGregor Range in New Mexico indicates that the efficient market price for federal forage, services, and facilities had an upper value of $4.88/AUM during the 1992 grazing season. The facilities and services provided on the McGregor Range had a value of $1.96/AUM to the ranchers leasing the bombing range. The residual amount of $2.92/AUM repesents the estimated value of high quality federal forage during 1992. The total cost of grazing McGregor Range was estimated to average $16.78/AUM during the 1992 production year. This is less than the cost of leasing comparable private land ($19.68/AUM) or BLM land ($21.06/AUM) in New Mexico. [References: 13]

Frank, T. D., S. A. Tweddale, et al. (2005). "Non-destructive estimation of canopy gap fractions and shrub canopy volume of dominant shrub species in the Mojave desert." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 231-244.
	Variability of desert shrub canopy volume or above ground biomass can provide a useful metric for assessment of the response of desert shrubs to vehicular impacts, and can be used to determine the recovery and resiliency of different desert plant communities to such impacts. Traditional methods for measuring desert shrub canopy volume are inefficient and require destructive sampling. Field sampling methods that eliminate the need for destructive sampling are required to measure the vertical structure of desert shrubs for the purpose of measuring shrub volumes. Plant canopy analyzers and hemispheric photographs have been analyzed for the purpose of estimating canopy characteristics in forested and agricultural environments, but the utility of such instruments for measuring vertical structure of desert shrubs has not been fully explored. In this research, plant canopy gap fractions were estimated for 96 shrubs in the Mojave Desert using both a Li-Cor LAI 2000 Plant Canopy Analyzer and skyward looking hemispheric photographs collected with a digital camera with a fisheye lens attached. Gap fraction estimates from both estimates were comparable and no significant difference was found between estimates collected with both instruments. The LAI was identified as the preferred method for measuring gap fractions due to superior efficiency in data collection and processing. Using gap fractions recorded with the LAI, a model was developed to estimate the volume of desert shrub canopies that utilizes a combination of non-destructive, in situ measurements of plant canopy height and width and estimates of canopy area derived from remotely sensed imagery. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Freeman, C. D., M. L. Brown, et al. (2004). "Photosynthesis and Fluctuating Asymmetry as Indicators of Plant Response to Soil Disturbance in the Fall-Line Sandhills of Georgia: A Case Study Using Rhus copallinum and Ipomoea pandurata." International Journal of Plant Sciences 165(5): 805-816.
	We examined net photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, and leaf fluctuating asymmetry on two species (Rhus copallinum and Ipomoea pandurata) as indicators of stress at nine sites across a gradient of soil disturbance at Fort Benning, Georgia. There were three sites for each of three disturbance levels. Physical habitat disturbance was caused by activities associated with infantry training, including mechanized elements (tanks and personnel carriers) and foot soldiers. In addition, we examined the influence of prescribed burns and microhabitat effects (within meter-square quadrats centered about the plant) on these measures of plant stress. Net photosynthesis declined with increasing disturbance in the absence of burning for both species. However, when sites were burned the previous year, net photosynthesis increased with increasing disturbance. Developmental instability in Rhus, as measured by fluctuating asymmetry, also declined with increasing disturbance in the absence of burning but increased with disturbance if sites were burned the previous year. Developmental instability was much less sensitive to burning in Ipomoea and in general was lowest at intermediate disturbance sites. Microenvironmental and microhabitat effects were weakly correlated with measures of plant stress when all sites were combined. However, higher correlations were obtained within site categories, especially when the recent history of prescribed burning was used as a category. Finally, using all of the combined data in a discriminant function analysis allowed us to correctly predict the disturbance level of more than 80% of the plants. Plant stress is responsive to both large-scale perturbations, such as burning, and microhabitat parameters. Because of this, it is important to include macro- and microhabitat parameters when assessing stress. Similarly, we found a combination of developmental and physiological indicators of stress was superior to using them separately.

Freeman, D. C., M. L. Brown, et al. (2004). "Developmental instability in rhus copallinum L.: multiple stressors, years, and respsonses." International Journal of Plant Sciences 165(1): 53-63.
	Developmental instability, as assessed by leaf fluctuating asymmetry and stem internode allometry, was examined at nine sites, representing three levels of disturbance, over multiple years. Site selection was based on land-use disturbance classes related to training of mechanized infantry and other land management activities at Fort Benning, Georgia. Developmental instability varied among sites and years, and there was a strong site-by-year interaction for many traits. Indeed, depending on the year, the same site could be ranked as having the greatest and least amount of leaf fluctuating asymmetry. Burning a site the year prior to collecting the leaves profoundly influenced measures of leaf fluctuating asymmetry. In the absence of recent burning, leaf fluctuating asymmetry declined with increasing disturbance, but burning the year prior to collecting the leaves reversed this trend. Total plant cover, proportion of bare ground, and amount of plant litter influenced the amount of leaf asymmetry in a site-dependent manner. Overall, burning influenced the levels of developmental instability more than either disturbance or microhabitat variables such as total plant cover, which should reflect competition in a plant's immediate neighborhood.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR

Frenzel, P. F. and C. G. Abeyta (1999). Geohydrology of the unsaturated zone and simulated time of arrival of landfill leachate at the water table, municipal solid waste landfill facility, U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss, El Paso County, Texas. Albuquerque, N.M, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 26 p.
	The U.S. Air Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Facility (MSWLF) is located about 10 miles northeast of downtown El Paso, Texas. The landfill is built on 
the Hueco Bolson, a deposit that yields water to five public-supply wells within 1.1 miles of the landfill boundary on all sides. The bolson deposits consist of lenses and mixtures of sand, clay, 
silt, gravel, and caliche. The unsaturated zone at the landfill is about 300 feet thick. The Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP) and the Multimedia Exposure Assessment Model for Evaluating the Land Disposal of Wastes (MULTIMED) computer models were used to simulate the time of first arrival of landfill leachate at the water table. 

Site-specific data were collected for model input. At five sites on the landfill cover, hydraulic conductivity was measured by an in situ method; in addition, laboratory values were obtained for porosity, moisture content at field capacity, and 
moisture content at wilting point. Twenty-seven sediment samples were collected from two adjacent boreholes drilled near the southwest corner of the landfill. Of these, 23 samples were assumed to represent the unsaturated zone beneath the landfill. The core samples were analyzed in the laboratory for various characteristics required for the HELP and MULTIMED models: initial moisture content, dry bulk density, porosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity, moisture retention percentages at various suction values, total organic carbon, and pH. Parameters were calculated for the van Genuchten and Brooks-Corey equations that 
relate hydraulic conductivity to saturation. A reported recharge value of 0.008 inch per year was estimated on the basis of soil-water chloride concentration.

The HELP model was implemented using input values that were based mostly on site-specific data or assumed in a conservative manner. 
Exceptions were the default values used for waste characteristics. 
Flow through the landfill was assumed to be at steady state. The 
HELP-estimated landfill leakage rate was 101.6 millimeters per 
year, approximately 500 times the estimated recharge rate for the 
area near the landfill. 

The MULTIMED model was implemented using input values that were based mainly on site-specific data and some conservatively assumed values. Landfill leakage was assumed to 
begin when the landfill was established and to continue at a steady-state rate of 101.6 millimeters per year as estimated by the HELP model. By using an assumed solute concentration in the leachate of 1 milligram per liter and assuming no delay or decay of solute, the solute serves as a tracer to indicate the first 
arrival of landfill leachate. The simulated first arrival of leachate at the water table was 204 to 210 years after the establishment of the landfill. 

Fuchs, E. H. (1997). Sediment removal by water following mechanical surface disturbance on Chuahuan desert soils in New Mexico. Range Science. Las Cruces, New Mexico State University.
	This study was conducted to determine the impacts of military tracked M1A1 heavy combat tank and wheeled M998A2 "Humvee" vehicles on sediment loss by water, surface plant basal cover, and surface microtopography in a desert environment. A randomized complete block design was used which had fourteen blocks with four plots (0.5m2) in each block at one site on a Lozier very gravely loam soil series, and six blocks with four plots (0.5m2) in each block at another site on a Philder very fine sandy loam soil series. At the Lozier soil series site, each block had randomly selected treatments that included an untreated control, one pass by a Humvee, ten passes by a Humvee, one pass by an M1A1 tank under wet soil conditions, three passes by an M1A1 tank under wet soil conditions, one pass by an MlAl tank under dry soil conditions, and three passes by an M1A1 tank under dry soil conditions. At the Philder soil series site, each block had randomly selected treatments that included an untreated control, one pass by a Humvee, and ten passes by a Humvee. Both sites were located on the New Mexico portion of the Fort Bliss McGregor Guided Missile Range, the Lozier site at military grid coordinates 120616, and the Philder site at military grid coordinates 270880. The sites were chosen for differing soil types. Elevation is 1219 meters and annual precipitation is ,200 millimeters. It was found that triple pass M1A1 tank impacts had detrimental effects on the Lozier soil site that could last many years, particularly when disturbances were imposed under dry soil conditions, but that Humvee disturbances did not pose a substantial influence beyond one year at one or ten passes at either site. Most sample periods showed that sediment losses from M1A1 tank treatments, single or triple passes under wet or dry conditions, did not differ statistically from natural sediment losses under normal rainfall events. However, comparatively heavy rainfall events often generated statistically greater sediment losses from the M1A1 tank triple pass treatments at the Lozier soil study site. Stepwise regression showed that grass cover, litter cover, and microtopographic variance were highly and negatively correlated with cumulative sediment loss at the Lozier soil study site. Other results indicated that the Philder soil study site was more sensitive to disturbance. Depending on precipitation availability, vegetation recovery and soil stability pattern suggest a minimum of three years for most triple pass tank impacts at the Lozier soil study site.

Fuchs, E. H., M. K. Wood, et al. (2003). "Impacts of tracked vehicles on sediment from a desert soil." Journal of Range Management 56(4): 342-352.
	Off-road military vehicle traffic is a major consideration in the management of military lands. The objective of this study was to determine the impacts of military tracked M1A1 heavy combat tank vehicles on sediment loss from runoff, surface plant cover, and surface microtopography in a desert military training environment. A randomized block design was used which had 10 blocks with 4 plots (0.5 m(2)) in each block. Each block had randomly selected treatments that included an untreated control, I pass by a M1A1 tank under wet seasonal conditions, 3 passes by a MIA1 tank under wet seasonal conditions, 1 pass by a MIA1 tank under dry seasonal conditions, and 3 passes by a M1A1 tank under dry seasonal conditions. Data were analyzed using mean separation and stepwise regression techniques. Most sample periods showed that sediment losses from MIA1 tank treatments, single or triple passes under wet or dry seasonal conditions, did not differ statistically from natural sediment losses under nominal rainfall events. However, comparatively intense rainfall events often generated significantly (P < 0.05) greater sediment losses from the M1A1 tank triple pass treatments. Triple pass M1A1 tank impacts had detrimental effects that could last many years, particularly when disturbances were imposed under dry seasonal conditions. Seasonal drought for the area, occurring 2 out of 3 years during the study period, may have exacerbated the effects of triple pass M1A1 tank impacts. Analysis showed that grass cover, litter cover, and microtopographic variance were highly and negatively correlated (R = -0.62) with cumulative sediment loss. Depending on precipitation availability, a minimum of 3 years for most triple pass M1A1 tank impacts is suggested for suitable vegetation recovery and soil stability. It is recommended that site repetitious M1A1 tank training maneuvers should be conducted with particular attention to site recovery. Furthermore, the influence of climate, drought in particular, should be among the topics addressed by future military training land use models.

Fuller, M. E., P. B. Hatzinger, et al. (2004). "Enhancing the attenuation of explosives in surface soils at military facilities: Combined sorption and biodegradation." Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23(2): 313-324.
	This research evaluated soil amendments designed to enhance the adsorption and biodegradation of explosives at military training facilities, thus minimizing their potential for transport to subsurface environments. Several carbon cosubstrates were tested in soil slurries for their ability to stimulate the biodegradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (royal demolition exposive (RDX)), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (high-melting explosive (HMX)) by indigenous soil microorganisms. Crude soybean oil and molasses stimulated mineralization of RDX (30-40%) and HMX (apprx10%). The TNT was not significantly mineralized in any of the treatments, but high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis indicated extensive transformation of TNT to amino-containing compounds. The biodegradation of explosives was then examined in unsaturated soil microcosms amended with crude soybean oil and molasses combined with sphagnum peat moss and sawdust. Minimal TNT mineralization was observed, and HMX mineralization was only observed with molasses addition. In contrast, RDX mineralization was extensive in microcosms amended with soybean oil or molasses. The presence of peat moss decreased soybean oil-stimulated RDX mineralization by approximately 5%, but resulted in about 5% greater RDX mineralization compared with molasses only. Sawdust markedly decreased mineralization regardless of cosubstrate type. Mass balance results indicated that the formation of bound residues likely was occurring, especially for TNT These results indicate that the application of inexpensive adsorbents and cosubstrates to soils may significantly improve the protection of groundwater resources underlying live fire ranges.

Gallacher, W. G. (1991). Grazing fee evaluation on McGregor Range: a competitive market situation, New Mexico State University.
	
Garber, M. and J. Y. Wong (1981). "Prediction of Ground Pressure Distribution under Tracked Vehicles - an Analytical Method for Predicting Ground Pressure Distribution." Journal of Terramechanics 18(1): 1-23.
	
Garten, C. T., Jr. and T. L. Ashwood (2004). "Modeling soil quality thresholds to ecosystem recovery at Fort Benning, GA, USA." Ecological Engineering 23(4-5): 351-369.
	The objective of this research was to use a simple model of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics to predict nutrient thresholds to ecosystem recovery on degraded soils at Fort Benning, Georgia, in the southeastern USA. Artillery, wheeled, and tracked vehicle training at military installations can produce soil disturbance and potentially create barren, degraded soils. Ecosystem reclamation is an important component of natural resource management at military installations. Four factors were important to the development of thresholds to recovery of aboveground biomass on degraded soils: (1) initial amounts of aboveground biomass, (2) initial soil C stocks (i.e., soil quality), (3) relative recovery rates of biomass, and (4) soil sand content. Forests and old fields on soils with varying sand content had different predicted thresholds for ecosystem recovery. Soil C stocks at barren sites on Fort Benning were generally below predicted thresholds to 100% recovery of desired future ecosystem conditions defined on the basis of aboveground biomass. Predicted thresholds to ecosystem recovery were less on soils with more than 70% sand content. The lower thresholds for old field and forest recovery on more sandy soils were apparently due to higher relative rates of net soil N mineralization. Calculations with the model indicated that a combination of desired future conditions, initial levels of soil quality (defined by soil C stocks), and the rate of biomass accumulation determine the predicted success of ecosystem recovery on disturbed soils.

Garten, C. T., T. L. Ashwood, et al. (2003). "Effect of military training on indicators of soil quality at Fort Benning, Georgia." Ecological Indicators 3(3): 171-179.
	The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of soil disturbance on several key indicators of soil quality at Fort Benning, Georgia. Military activities at Fort Benning that result in soil disturbance include infantry, artillery, wheeled, and tracked vehicle training. Soil samples were collected along a disturbance gradient that included: (1) reference sites, (2) light military use, (3) moderate military use, (4) heavy military use, and (5) remediated sites. With the exception of surface soil bulk density, measured soil properties at reference and light use sites were similar. Relative to reference sites, greater surface soil bulk density, lower soil carbon concentrations, and less carbon and nitrogen in particulate organic matter (POM) were found at moderate use, heavy use, and remediated sites. Studies along a pine forest chronosequence indicated that carbon stocks in POM gradually increased with stand age. An analysis of soil C:N ratios, as well as soil carbon concentrations and stocks, indicated a recovery of soil quality at moderate military use and remediated sites relative to heavy military use sites. Measurements of soil carbon and nitrogen are ecological indicators that can be used by military land managers to identify changes in soil from training activities and to rank training areas on the basis of soil quality.

Gatto, L. W. (1997). Ground Freezing Effects on Soil Erosion of Army Training Lands Part 1: Initial Test Results. Special report, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab., Hanover, NH: 40 p.
	Military maneuvers damage vegetation and compact and rut soils on training lands, thereby increasing the likelihood of hillslope runoff and soil erosion. Soil Freeze-Thaw (FT) processes can change the hydraulic geometry and roughness of vehicular ruts and reduce soil compaction, which often partially restores the water infiltration rate that existed before compaction. The efficiency of these FT-induced 'repairs' depends on soil water content and FT intensity. Initial tests showed that: (1) an experimental soil bin designed and constructed for rut experiments allows acceptable simulation of field soil FT, and (2) the hydraulic geometry of a rectangular rill in a fine silt soil with an initial volumetric water content of 36% changes dramatically due to rill sideslope slumping during thaw. Future experiments will compare differences in the response of natural rills and vehicular ruts to FT-induced soil failure, and investigate the effects of FT on soil erodibility and the influences of snow cover on soil erosion processes in the spring.

Gatziolis, D., J. S. Fried, et al. (2000). Monitoring the Impacts of Tracked Vehicle Training Area use at Ft. Hood, Texas: A GIS Approach. Second International Conference on Geospatial Information in Agriculture and Forestry, Lake Buena Vista, Florida.
	Track-vehicle induced vegetation disturbance on military installations during maneuver training is thought to be a significant threat to ecosystem stability.  A data set containing disturbance observations collected by the US Army Corps of Engineers Research Laboratory (CERL) over eight years was analyzed to assess the effects of physiographic characteristics (terrain, soil, and vegetation) on the spatial and temporal distribution of disturbance within track-vehicle training areas.  Geostatistical analysis of disturbance and lack of association between disturbance data.  Lack of information about annual training activity levels and the small number of disturbance monitoring locations sampled limited applicability of the modeling approaches initially envisioned.  Spatial overlays of kriging-interpolated maps of annual-disturbance were used to portray potential disturbance distribution across the training areas.

Gebhart, D. L., M. L. Denight, et al. (1999). Dust control guidance and technology selection key, U.S. Army Environmental Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: 31 p.
	Considerable research on dust control has been
conducted by the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, U.S. Army Construction
Engineering Research Laboratories, product
manufacturers, and other Federal and State agencies. However, results from this body of work have been published in a number of diverse and obscure documents that are largely unavailable or inaccessible to Army environmental, safety, public works, and natural resources managers. This lack of readily available information makes it difficult to make informed, cost-effective decisions for selecting and applying appropriate dust control products with proven performance characteristics and maintenance requirements.

Gebhart, D. L. and T. A. Hale (1997). Effectiveness of dust control agents applied to tank trails and helicopter landing zones. Champaign, IL, U.S Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 23 p.
	Operating wheeled and tracked vehicles on dry, unsurfaced roadways creates tremendous amounts of dust as soil particles are dislodged and carried into the atmosphere through wind action. Numerous products are available for controlling dust on unsurfaced roadways, but very little data exists from large scale field experiments designed to evaluate their effectiveness, durability over time, and cost. To help installation public works, environmental, and natural resources managers select durable and cost effective dust control products, a research/demonstration project on unsurfaced roadways was initiated at Fort Campbell, KY, during the summer of 1996. Products evaluated included calcium chloride, proprietary polyvinyl acrylic emulsion, and soybean processing by products. At Fort Campbell, each dust control product was applied to recently graded unsurfaced roadways according to the manufacturers' recommendations. Dust control data were then collected at monthly intervals. Levels of dust control associated with each product and the untreated control area were evaluated using dust collection pans and photographic images captured after controlled vehicle traffic. Cost and performance data suggest that calcium chloride provides good levels of dust control for periods exceeding 90 days. Conversely, polyvinyl acrylic emulsion and soybean processing by-products were exhibiting deterioration after 60 days, especially on road surfaces completely covered with limestone aggregates. 

Gebhart, D. L., T. A. Hale, et al. (1996). Dust control material performance on unsurfaced roadways and tank trails. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Environmental Center: 34 p.
	Wheeled and tracked vehicle operation on dry, unsurfaced roadways creates tremendous amounts of dust as soil particles are dislodged and carried into the atmosphere through wind action. Numerous products have been developed for controlling dust on unsurfaced roadways but very little data exists from replicated, large scale field experiments designed to evaluate their effectiveness, durability over time, and cost. To assist installation public works, environmental, and natural resources managers in selecting durable and cost effective dust control products, a demonstration project on unsurfaced roadways at Fort Hood and Fort Sill was initiated during the spring of 1996. Products evaluated included 38% calcium chloride, calcium lignosulfonate, proprietary polyvinyl acetate and acrylic emulsions, soybean processing by-products, and an untreated control. At Forts Hood and Sill, each dust control product was applied to recently graded 500-yard segments of unsurfaced roadways according to manufacturers recommendations. This arrangement was repeated three times at each installation, allowing for statistical inferences to be drawn from the dust control data. Dust control data were collected at
monthly intervals following product application. Levels of dust control associated with each product and the untreated control were evaluated using dust collection pans and photographic images captured immediately preceding and at five seconds after controlled vehicle traffic. Data were evaluated using analysis of variance and products ranked in order of effectiveness using
mean separation procedures. Cost and performance data suggest that calcium chloride, calcium lignosulfonate, and soybean processing by-products provided good levels of dust control for periods exceeding 60 days. Levels of dust control for all products evaluated were better at Fort Sill than Fort Hood due to much lower tracked vehicle traffic volumes and coarser textured roadway surfaces. Deterioration of product performance over time was more rapid at Fort Hood due to very heavy tracked vehicle traffic and fine textured roadway surfaces.

Gebhart, D. L. and S. D. Warren (1995). Regional Cost Estimates for Rehabilitation and Maintenance Practices on Army Training Lands. Final report. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 45 p.
	The U.S. Army is responsible for managing millions of acres of land used to support a variety of training and testing activities. This report summarizes current, regional cost data obtained from various Federal, State, and private agencies concerning land rehabilitation and maintenance (LRAM) practices. In general, LRAM costs were highest in the Pacific Coast, Intermountain, and Northeast regions of the United States and lowest in the Great Plains and Cornbelt regions. This reflects regional differences in costs of goods and services, proximity to larger cities capable of providing necessary LRAM equipment and services, and proximity to production agriculture enterprises.

Gehlhausen, S. and M. G. Harper (1998). Management of Maritime Communities for Threatened and Endangered Species. Final report. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 49 p.
	Maritime ecosystems along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts support the military mission of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). Since the DoD mission has not required large-scale urbanization of the coast, these ecosystems also provide high quality habitat for several federally threatened and endangered plant and animal species (TES). TES conservation is compatible with military land use, as long as native plant communities remain subject to the cycles of disturbance and regeneration characteristic of the coastal zone. This report discusses four vegetation types that comprise the natural areas that support maritime TES: the overwash community, the sand dune community, the maritime shrub community, and the evergreen maritime forest community. Disruption of the natural processes of beach erosion and rebuilding through construction of seawalls, jetties, artificial dunes and beaches, roads, and urban areas is probably the most harmful human impact to maritime communities and their associated TES. Since the native maritime plant communities are relatively resilient to military training activities, conservation of this high quality TES habitat is not problematic on DoD lands. Protection of TES during critical times such as migration and the breeding season may be accommodated through seasonal or spatial restrictions on activities.

Geo Marine, I. (1994). Ft. Bliss integrated natural resources management plan: scoping report. Ft. Worth, TX, Ft. Worth District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Baton Rouge, LA, Geo-Marine.
	
George, J. L. and W. H. Stickel (1949). "Wildlife effects of DDT dust for tick control on a Texas prairie." American Midland Naturalist 42: 228-237.
	
Gerylo, G. R. (2000). Extracting forest inventory variables from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data in the Fort Simpson region, Northwest Territories, University of Calgary (Canada): 173 p.
	In this thesis the use of Landsat Thematic Mapper (Landsat TM) satellite imagery in estimation of forest inventory data is analyzed for a study area near Fort Simpson, NWT. Field data were collected from 106 plots to develop empirical models that determine the relationships between stand variables and Landsat TM reflectance, vegetation indices or Tasseled Cap transformations. The general relationship of increasing height, age, crown closure and volume with decreasing reflectance was observed from results generated in this study. These relationships were in part, attributed to the proportion of shadow and reflectance from tree crowns and canopy understory that are observed by the satellite, where overall stand reflectance is decreased due to the influence of shadows cast. Models developed to predict stand variables from remote sensing data were generally stronger for primary successional species, including jack pine and trembling aspen, because the changes in their structure and composition were consistent at each successional stage, over the range of stands sampled. Models were weaker for white spruce, a secondary successional species, and mixed-wood stands since there was greater variability in the structure of these stands due to the different successional pathways they have followed.

Geyer, W. A., W. H. Fick, et al. (2002). "Weed Management on Military Storage Gravel Lots." Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science 105(1): 66-71.
	Various commercial chemicals were tested to control visually obstructive weed populations abundant in the graveled storage areas on the Fort Riley Military Reservation. Several herbicides applied at lower amounts than the historical treatment were effective in reducing weedy plants. The chemicals Oust and Telar + Karmex provided the best long-term control. Arsenal could be added to a tank mix to provide greater control of field bindweed and tumble windmill grass. A change to these chemicals as part of the integrated pest management strategy would thus help to meet the United States Department of Defense directive to reduce pesticide usage.

Gibbs, V., D. Pitts, et al. (1997). A cultural and natural resources survey of approximately 7.3 miles of pipeline right-of-way on Fort Bliss Military Reservation and State Trust Lands, El Paso County, Texas. El Paso, Tex, Geo-Marine, Inc.
	
Gibson, A. C., M. R. Sharifi, et al. (2004). "Resprout characteristics of creosote bush ( Larrea tridentata ) when subjected to repeated vehicle damage." Journal of Arid Environments 57(4): 411-429.
	Studies were conducted in the central Mojave Desert to quantify how creosote bushes ( Larrea tridentata ) respond to physical damage during large-scale military training exercises. Creosote bush possesses a resilient growth form that recovers from repeated physical damage via resprouts arising from meristems in stem bark below severed or crushed canopy units. At high levels of disturbance by heavy vehicles, nearly all individuals showed measurable breakage, but without additional damage each plant can regain a full canopy within 5 years under arid field conditions. Resprouts exhibited more vigorous growth and doubled the biomass accumulation stimulated by high rainfall of 1998, an El Nin˜o year, vs . a normal year. New shoots of resprouted individuals were markedly different in morphological traits than canopy old growth and had slightly higher predawn shoot water potentials. The natural ability of this evergreen species to recover from cutting and crushing bodes well for re-establishment of creosote bush desert scrub communities following episodes of severe damage by vehicles.

Gillespie, B. M. (1987). The impact of military maneuvers on eolian transport and soil compressive strength in south central New Mexico, University of Wyoming: 193 p.
	
Gilliland, M. W. and P. G. Risser (1977). "The Use of Systems Diagrams For Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures and an Application." Ecological Modelling 3(3): 183-210.
	The utility of systems diagrams and of energy as a unit of measure for environmental impact assessment is illustrated using results from the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico [USA] Environmental Impact Statement. A set of procedures for developing and evaluating the diagrams is given and applied to White Sands. The utility of results obtained using this method is compared to those obtained from other methods, and the inadequacies of each are discussed. Impacts at White Sands were evaluated at 2 system levels of detail. At a macroscale, 5 types of impacts resulting from missile range activities were analyzed. Stresses on the environment caused by those activities represent 1.0% of the natural energy flow through the system. The effect of water consumption by the Missile Range on the aquifer from which the water is obtained was analyzed by means of a hydrologic model. Model simulations indicated that salt water intrusion into the aquifer was eminent and identified 2 aquifer management strategies that could prevent that intrusion.

Giocomo, J. J. (2005). Conservation of grassland bird population on military installations in the eastern United States with special emphasis on Fort Campbell Army Base, Kentucky, The University of Tennessee: 181 p.
	This study was conducted to provide basic life history and nest site habitat use information as well as information about populations and potential region-wide habitat availability to enhance current and future land management planning for grassland bird conservation. I focused on Grasshopper Sparrow ( Ammodramus savannarum ), Henslow's Sparrow ( Ammodramus henslowii ), Field Sparrow ( Spizella pusillia ), Dickcissel ( Spiza americana ), and Eastern Meadowlark ( Sturnella magna ) populations. The objectives were: (1) to provide life history parameters for five grassland bird species at Fort Campbell Army Base, Kentucky, 1999-2003; (2) to use the life history parameters to examine population viability grassland bird populations, and examine the implications of the timing of management activities; (3) to examine nest site habitat selection; and (4) to examine the potential for United States Department of Defense installations in the eastern United States to provide grassland habitat for breeding and wintering grassland bird populations. A total of 811 nests were monitored between 1999-2003. The population viability models indicated the grassland bird species were sink populations in most years with Grasshopper Sparrow being the only species indicating overall stable populations at Fort Campbell. Mowing within the breeding season had a negative impact on population viability, even with multiple brooding. The nesting habitat selection analysis indicated grassland birds selected areas with deeper litter, less bare ground, and taller grass than was generally available at Fort Campbell. This result was probably caused by annual burning, which was too frequent to create suitable habitat for these grassland bird species. Finally, Of the 186 land areas in the eastern US managed by the DOD, 45 contained at least one large (>40 ha) patch of grassland, including 1 port managed by the Army Corps of Engineers, 23 Army, 3 Air Force, 3 Marine, 11 Navy, and 4 National Guard installations, providing at least 65,000 ha of grassland. Most of the selected military installations were located in the southern United States within 300 km of the coast. With planning, military installations could have major positive impacts on the declining populations of birds that depend on frequent habitat disturbance to maintain early-successional habitats like grasslands.

Goehring, L. D., A. J. Palazzo, et al. (1992). Drainage and soil compaction improvements to the U.S. Military Academy parade field. Land Reclamation: Advances in Research and Technology, Proceedings of the International Symposium, Nashville, TN.
	
Goetz, F. E. and L. Karr (1999). Potential for Using Biogeochemical Markers to Assess and Monitor the Impact of Military Training Exercises on Desert Ecosystems: Proof-of-Concept. Port Hueneme, CA, Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center 22 p.
	The rate of nitrogen fixation and nitrogen flux in soil samples collected from a pristine and heavily disturbed site at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center (MCAGCC) Twenty-Nine Palms were 6 +/- 2.05 and 3 +/- 1.04 mM ethylene/g-h and 30.1 +/- 6.47 and 21.9 +/- 6.95 micrograms/sq m - d respectively (P vegetation and release of nutrients that accompany military training exercises. Decay of damaged vegetation releases nutrients that support bacterial growth and suppresses nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The bacteria at the disturbed site also appear to be experiencing an increase in environmental stress that may be associated with the damaged vegetation, soil compaction, reduced percolation of water, and/or a decrease in oxygen in the soil gas. A solid state ammonia sensor constructed by American Research Corporation of Virginia and tested in desert soil detected ammonia concentrations as low as 20 ppb which is the concentration reported for desert soils in this and other studies.

Goodman, S. W. (1996). "Ecosystem Management at the Department of Defense." Ecological Applications 6(3): 706-707.
	
Goran, W. D. and R. Clark (1987). Implementing Geographic Information Systems on Military Installations.
	
Goran, W. D., L. L. Radke, et al. (1983). An Overview of the Ecological Effects of Tracked Vehicles on Major US Army Installations. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 75 p.
	Various levels of field studies were done on 12 U.S. Army Training Doctrine Command (TRADOC) and U.S. Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) installations to provide a general overview of ecological disturbance cause by tactical vehicle training. Detailed quantitative and qualitative data were obtained from Forts Polk, Knox, Hood, and Lewis; supplementary semi-quantitative and qualitative studies were done at Forts Benning, Bliss, Carson, Drum, Irwin, Riley, and Stewart, and at Yakima Firing Range.

Goudie, R. I. and I. L. Jones (2004). "Dose-response relationships of harlequin duck behaviour to noise from low-level military jet over-flights in central Labrador." Environmental Conservation 31(4): 289-298.
	Concern for the lack of field studies on the effects of low-level military jet over-flights on wildlife resulted in directed research in the Military Training Area of Labrador, 1999–2002. At Fig River, a tributary of the Lower Churchill River, a before-after-control-impact (BACI) study design quantified effects of aircraft over-flights on behaviour of individual harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) in the 130 000 km2 Military Training Area of central Labrador. Noise generated from low-level passes (30–100 m above ground level) by military jets was sudden in onset and high in amplitude (>100 dBA), substantially above background sound levels both at Fig Lake outlet (40–50 dBA) and rapid sections of Fig River (60–70 dBA). Harlequin ducks reacted to noise from military jets with alert behaviour, showing a positive dose-response that especially intensified when noise exceeded 80 dBA. Residual effects, in other words, deviations from normal behaviour patterns after initial responses, were decreased courtship behaviour for up to 1.5 h after, and increased agonistic behaviour for up to 2 h after military jet over-flights. Direct behavioural responses to military jet over-flights were of short duration (generally &#60;1 min), and were unlikely to affect critical behaviours such as feeding and resting in the overall time-activity budgets of breeding pairs. However, the presence of residual effects on behaviour implied whole-body stress responses that were potentially more serious; these require further study because they are potentially more detrimental than immediate responses, and may not be detected in studies that focus on readily observed overt responses. A dose-response curve relating particular behaviours of harlequin ducks to associated noise of over-flights could be a valuable conservation tool for the research and mitigation of environmental impacts of aircraft and other noise.

Graham, J. H., H. H. Hughie, et al. (2004). "Habitat disturbance and the diversity and abundance of ants (Formicidae) in the Southeastern Fall-Line Sandhills " Journal of Insect Science 4(30): 1-15.
	We examined habitat disturbance, species richness, equitability, and abundance of ants in the Fall-Line Sandhills, at Fort Benning, Georgia. We collected ants with pitfall traps, sweep nets, and by searching tree trunks. Disturbed areas were used for military training; tracked and wheeled vehicles damaged vegetation and soils. Highly disturbed sites had fewer trees, diminished ground cover, warmer soils in the summer, and more compacted soils with a shallower A-horizon. We collected 48 species of ants, in 23 genera (141,468 individuals), over four years of sampling. Highly disturbed areas had fewer species, and greater numbers of ants than did moderately or lightly disturbed areas. The ant communities in disturbed areas were also less equitable, and were dominated by Dorymyrmex smithi.

Grantham, W. P. (1998). Tracked Vehicle Impacts to Vegetation Structure and Wind Erodibility of Soils, unknown.
	
Grantham, W. P., E. F. Redente, et al. (2001). "Tracked vehicle impacts to vegetation structure and soil erodibility." Journal of Range Management 54(6): 711-716.
	There has been increasing concern that training on military lands results in excessive soil erosion, ecosystem degradation, and loss of sustainable training resources. Vegetation structure has been shown to play a role in soil surface stabilization by reducing shear stress caused by wind force. A study at the Idaho Army National Guard training facility at Orchard Training Area (OTA), Ida. assessed the effect of simulated M1A2 Abrams battletank maneuvers on grassland plant canopies and soil erodibility. The point-intercept method was used to estimate vertical vegetation structure before and after tracking. A portable wind tunnel was used to measure threshold wind speeds (TWS) associated with different numbers of tank passes and soil mass removed by wind. Results indicated that significant damage occurred to vertical vegetation structure as the number of passes increased. Threshold wind speed, an indicator of soil surface stability, significantly decreased with tracking and eroded soil mass significantly increased. Positive correlations existed between vegetation parameters and threshold wind speed. Soil loss was negatively correlated with vegetation parameters. Results indicated that the decrease of vertical vegetation structure led to a decrease in threshold wind speed. This decrease in threshold wind speed was the result of reduced soil surface protection by vegetation. Decreased surface protection also resulted in increased soil loss. Results from this work confirmed that vegetation plays a major role in reducing shear stress on the soil surface. Predictions for soil loss at Orchard Training Area resulting from the number of M1A2 passes are made using linear models. A critical tracking threshold of 4 passes was estimated based upon model output and average local wind speeds for Orchard Training Area. [References: 22] 22

Greene, T. A. and T. J. Nichols (1996). "Effects of long-term military training traffic on forest vegetation in central Minnesota." Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 13(4): 157-163.
	We studied vegetation on traveled and untraveled loamy sands on military training land in central Minnesota to identify traffic-induced differences in species composition, cover, diversity, growth rates, and tree condition. Long-term military traffic resulted in a 23% reduction in overstory basal area, a 14% reduction in canopy cover, a 43% reduction in overstory stem density, and a 20% reduction in overstory species diversity compared with adjacent untraveled areas. Most of the overstory basal area reduction was accounted for by a 78% reduction in quaking aspen basal area. Crown dieback was not significantly affected by traffic. Midstory tree and shrub density was 70% lower on traveled areas. Herbaceous vegetation was denser and more diverse in traveled areas. Traffic caused a six-fold increase in bare soil area on sloping soils, but had no effect on bare soil area on level sites. Our data suggest that moderate, long-term traffic on loamy sand soils results in a relatively stable system which can be thought of as in equilibrium between traffic, natural regenerative forces, and management activities. We caution managers that quaking aspen may decline under traffic, and remind them of the risk of erosion on traveled slopes.

Groves, C. R., L. S. Kutner, et al. (2000). Owning up to our responsibilities - who owns lands important for biodiversity? Precious Heritage - The Status of Biodiversity in the United States. B. A. Stein, L. S. Kutner and J. S. Adams, Oxford University Press: 275-300 
	
Grubb, T. G. and W. W. Bowerman (1997). "Variations in breeding bald eagle responses to jets, light planes and helicopters." Journal of Raptor Research 31(3): 213-222.
	We analyzed 3122 observations of military jets, light planes and helicopters for three levels of response (none, alert, flight) by breeding Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leococephalus) at 13 occupied nests in Arizona and six in Michigan, 1983-85 and 1989-90, respectively. Helicopters elicited the greatest frequency of response (47%), followed by jets (31%) and light planes (26%). Frequency of response (23-61%) and frequency of flight (2-13%) both increased through the nesting season from February to June. Distance from eagle to aircraft, duration of overflight and number of aircraft and/or passes were the most important characteristics influencing eagle responses to pooled and individual aircraft types. Classification tree (CART) models for individual aircraft types provide dichotomous keys of distance and secondary variables affecting associated response rates, and should facilitate evaluating aircraft- specific impacts. Our analyses indicate a categorical exclusion of aircraft within 600 m of nest sites would limit Bald Eagle response frequency to 19%.

Guan, B. T., G. Z. Gertner, et al. (1998). Modeling Training Site Vegetation Coverage Probability with a Random Optimizing Procedure: An Artificial Neural Network Approach. Final report. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 17 p.
	The objective of this project was to examine the feasibility of applying feed-forward neural networks to estimate training site vegetation coverage probability based on past disturbance pattern and vegetation coverage history. The rationale behind this project was the excellent approximation and generalization ability of feed-forward neural networks. Data used to train the networks were collected from Fort Sill, Oklahoma, using the U.S. Army's Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) standard data collection methodology. Two types of vegetation covers were modeled in this project: ground cover and canopy cover. For both types of vegetation cover, the input vector of a transect point consisted of several variables; namely, the past disturbance, past vegetation cover, plant community type, and vegetation life form. The output from the model was the estimated conditional probability of a transect point having vegetation cover. Results from this project suggest that artificial neural networks are a suitable tool for predicting training site vegetation coverage probability.

Guertin, P. J. (2000). Evaluation of the maneuver impact distribution map and its use in ATTACC, U.S. Army Environmental Center.
	
Guertin, P. J. (2005). Training restrictions on army lands due to high priority endangered species. Champaign, IL, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Contruction Engineering Research Lab: 30 p.
	The Endangered Species Act requires that Federal agencies conserve Threatened and Endangered Species (TES), and in consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the National Marine Fisheries Service, ensure their actions are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any TES or result in the destruction or adverse modifica-tion of critical habitat. Guidance for TES management can produce restrictions that interfere with realistic combat train-ing conducted on Army installations. The U.S. Army Environmental Requirements and Technology Assessments (AERTA) research is focused on seven of the highest priority TES. These species are: red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis), black-capped vireo (Vireo atri-capillus), golden-cheeked warbler (Dendroica chrysoparia), gray bat (Myotis grisescens), Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), and gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus). This document provides a current depiction of TES-related restrictions on Army installations that have populations of the seven priority TES and are, or have been, the focus of ERDC-CERL research efforts. Two important conclusions can be drawn from the information presented in this report: (1) TES restrict military training on installations to a quantifiable degree, and (2) over time, there is potential for many of these restrictions to be reduced.

Guretzky, J., J. Fehmi, et al. (2005). Cattle Grazing and Tracked Vehicle Training on Central and Southwest U.S. Army Lands, Potential Consequences for Grassland Ecosystems. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Research and Development Center (ERDC), Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL). TR-05-33: 35 p.
	sustainability of training lands continues to be a primary concern for natural resource managers on Army installations.  Tracked vehicle training, the main disturbance of grasslands, does not occcur in isolation from other land uses including cattle grazing.  Yet, no documented studies exist examining the interactive effects of these activities on soils and vegetation.  The objective of this research was to begin filling this knowledge gap.  This report reviews the literature documenting the impacts of tracked vehicle training and cattle grazing on soils and grassland plant communities and discusses potential interactive effects.  Responses to tracked vehicle training generally included increased soil compaction, reduced cover and production of perennial grasses, disturbance of biological soil crusts, greater wind and water erosion, and less carbon storage.  When overstocked, cattle grazing often results in similar effects.  Concerns are greatest when heavy stocking results in loss of soil cover and replacement of perennial grassland species with annual grasses and forbs.  Overall, the literature suggested that intensive cattle grazing of Army training lands might promote greater soil erosion and less desirable plant communities.  The consequences of their interaction is likely to be greater in arid grasslands, where recovery mechanisms are slow and desertification is a concern. 

Hale, T., S. White, et al. (1999). Tactical concealment area planning and design guidance document, U.S. Army Environmental Center.
	
Halisky, M. G. (1998). Vegetation Classification at the Orchard Training Area, Idaho, Using Remote Sensing, Utah State University: 109 p.
	  The Orchard Training Area (OTA) is located in southwest Idaho and is operated by the Idaho Army National Guard for military training purposes.  Vegetation data are an important part of the installation's natural resource database used for natural resource management of this land.  Producing a vegetation classification is a first step towards assessing ecosystem health.  However, because of the semi-arid climate, vegetation is sparse and difficult to classify using traditional classification algorithms.  This thesis outlines the design of a methodology to produce a vegetation classification that is accurate yet replicable and inexpensive.  The main focus of the classification was to delineate between shrubland and non-shrubland.

  This classification used a single Landsat TM satellite image and a single set of CIR aerial photographic prints.  The final classification was able to delineate between shrubland and non-shrubland with an accuracy of 83 percent.  Most of the areas of the OTA were successfully classified.  The majority of the error was geographically restricted to a few regions of misclassification.  This strengthens the discipline of remote sensing of vegetation by providing a unique methodology to produce accurate vegetation classifications in semi-arid regions.

Hall, S. P., H. E. LeGrand, Jr. , et al. (1997). Species Profile: Loggerhead Shrike ( Lanius ludovicianus) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 39 p.
	
Hallum, C. O., K. Wheaton, et al. (1998). Species Profile: Eastern Indigo Snake (Drymarchon corais couperi) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 17 p.
	
Halvorson, J. J., L. W. Gatto, et al. (in press). "Overwinter changes to near-surface bulk density, penetration resistance and infiltration rates in compacted soil." Journal of Terramechanics.
	Previous studies at Yakima Training Center (YTC), in Washington State, suggest freeze-thaw (FT) cycles can ameliorate soil compacted by tracked military vehicles [J. Terramechanics 38 (2001) 133]. However, we know little about the short-term effects of soil freezing over a single winter. We measured bulk density (BD), soil penetration resistance (SPR), and steady-state runoff rates in soil newly tracked by an Abrams tank and in uncompacted soil, before and after a single winter at YTC. We similarly measured BD, SPR and saturated hydraulic conductivity (kfs) in simulated tank tracks at another site near Lind Washington. Average BD was significantly greater in tank ruts at YTC and in simulated tracks at the Lind site than in uncompacted soil soon after tracking and did not change significantly during the winter of 1997–1998. Measurements of SPR were strongly influenced by soil moisture. When soil was moist or tracks were newly formed, SPR was significantly higher in tank ruts than in uncompacted soil from the surface to a depth of about 10–15 cm. The greatest average SPR in compacted soil was observed between 4 and 6 cm depth. We observed less difference in SPR between tank ruts and uncompacted soil near-surface at YTC as the time after trafficking increased. We observed highest SPR ratios (compacted rut:undisturbed) in fresh tracks near the surface, with lower ratios associated with increasing track age or soil depth, indicating that some recovery had occurred at YTC near-surface. However, we did not observe a similar over-winter change in SPR profiles at the Lind site. Rainfall simulator data from YTC showed higher steady-state runoff rates in tank ruts than over uncompacted soil both before and after winter. However, more time was required to reach steady-state flow in tank ruts and the proportion of runoff was slightly lower in May 1998 than in August 1997. At the Lind site, kfs was lower in newly compacted soil than in one-year old compacted soil or uncompacted soil. Our data suggest that indices of water infiltration such as steady-state runoff rates or kfs, are more sensitive indicators of soil recovery after compaction than are BD or SPR.

Halvorson, J. J., D. K. McCool, et al. (1998). Ground Freezing Effects on Soil Erosion of Army Training Lands Part 2: overwinter changes to tracked vehicle ruts, Yakima Training Center, Washington, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab, Hanover, NH: 13 p.
	Military maneuvers damage vegetation and compact and rut soils on training lands, thereby increasing the likelihood of hillslope runoff and soil erosion. Soil Freeze-Thaw (FT) processes can change the hydraulic geometry and roughness of vehicular ruts and reduce soil compaction, which often partially restores the water infiltration rate that existed before compaction. The efficiency of these FT-induced 'repairs' depends on soil water content and FT intensity. Initial tests showed that: (1) an experimental soil bin designed and constructed for rut experiments allows acceptable simulation of field soil FT, and (2) the hydraulic geometry of a rectangular rill in a fine silt soil with an initial volumetric water content of 36% changes dramatically due to rill sideslope slumping during thaw. Future experiments will compare differences in the response of natural rills and vehicular ruts to FT-induced soil failure, and investigate the effects of FT on soil erodibility and the influences of snow cover on soil erosion processes in the spring.

Halvorson, J. J., D. K. McCool, et al. (2001). "Soil compaction and over-winter changes to tracked-vehicle ruts, Yakima Training Center, Washington." Journal of Terramechanics 38(3): 133-151.
	We monitored two experimental areas at the Yakima Training Center (YTC) in central Washington to measure changes to M1A2 Abrams (M1) tank-rut surface geometry and in- and out-of-rut saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs), soil penetration resistance (SPR) and soil bulk density (BD). Profile-meter data show that rut cross-sectional profiles smoothed significantly and that turning ruts did so more than straight ruts. Rut edges were zones of erosion and sidewall bases were zones of deposition. Kfs values were similar in and out of ruts formed on soil with 0-5% moisture by volume, but were lower in ruts formed on soil with about 15% water. Mean SPR was similar in and out of ruts from 0- to 5-cm depth, increased to 2 MPa outside ruts and 4 MPa inside ruts at 10- to 15-cm depth, and decreased by 10-38% outside ruts and by 39-48% inside ruts at the 30-cm depth. Soil BD was similar in and out of ruts from 0- to 2.5-cm depth, and below 2.5 cm, it was generally higher in ruts formed on moist soil with highest values between 10- and 20-cm depth. Conversely, BD in ruts formed on dry soil was similar to out-of-rut BD at all depths. This information is important for determining impacts of tank ruts on water infiltration and soil erosion and for modifying the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) and the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) models to more accurately predict soil losses on army training lands. copy 2001 ISTVS. [References: 30]

Hamazaki, T., K. G. Boykin, et al. (2001). Incorporating Landscape Context in Conservation Planning Models for Fort Bliss Military Reservation, New Mexico and Texas, New Mexico Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit: 66 p.
	
Hamazaki, T., B. C. Thompson, et al. (2003). "Analysis of Ecological Context for Identifying Vegetation and Animal Conservation Planning Foci: An Example from the arid Southwestern United States." Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 46(2): 239-256.
	
Haner, T. W. (2002). The effects of woody patches of habitat on grassland small mammals, The University of Oklahoma: 106 p.
	  To understand better the influence of habitat modifications on grassland ecosystems, I examined the effects of woody patches on the species richness, species diversity, and total density of grassland small mammals; the role of local and regional environmental variables in determining abundance of grassland small mammals associated with woody patches; and the effects of edge on small mammals associated with a grassland-woody patch interface. I live-trapped a series of sites grouped by treatment (grassland only; woody patches surrounded by grassland) on Fort Sill Military Reservation in southwestern Oklahoma, during summer months from 1994 to 1997. Total density of small mammals was higher at sites with woody patches than at grassland sites without woody patches, in part because <italic>Peromyscus leucopus</italic> benefitted the most from woody patches, while numbers of <italic>Microtus ochrogaster</italic> were lower. Species richness and species diversity did not differ. More animals (all species combined) inhabited sites surrounded by relatively uniform landscapes, which also were farthest from bottomland forest and tallgrass prairie. Numbers and change in abundance of <italic>Sigmodon hispidus</italic>, the most frequently encountered mammal, did not follow the same pattern as that for all species combined. Overall, regional environmental variables accounted for more variation in abundance and changes in abundance in small mammals associated with woody patches than did local factors. Edge associated with woody patches varied in its effect on grassland small mammals. Captures of all species combined were more frequent within and closer to woody patches than at control sites, in part because <italic>S. hispidus, P. leucopus</italic>, and <italic>Neotoma floridana</italic> benefitted from woody patches and/or edge. Numbers of <italic> M. ochrogaster</italic> were lower, likely due to interactions with <italic> S. hispidus</italic>. All species co!
mbined, <italic>S. hispidus</italic>, and <italic>M. ochrogaster</italic> exhibited ecotonal effects that extended at least 10 m but not 25 m into the surrounding grassland, while <italic> N. floridana</italic> and <italic>P. leucopus</italic> showed matrix effects that ended near the patch edge. Although edge often is discernable to an investigator through structural characteristics of vegetation, my findings suggest that for small mammals it may be more useful to employ a functional description based on attributes of those species, such as abundance.

Hansen, D. J. and W. K. Ostler (2000). Evaluation of new high resolution image collection and processing techniques for estimating shrub cover and detecting landscape changes associated with military training in arid lands, Bechtel Nevada Corp. (US).
	Research funded by the US Department of Defense, US Department of Energy, and the US Environmental Protection Agency as part of Project CS-1131 of the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program evaluated novel techniques for collecting high-resolution images in the Mojave Desert using helicopters, helium-filled blimps, kites, and hand-held telescoping poles at heights from 1 to 150 meters. Several camera types, lens, films, and digital techniques were evaluated on the basis of their ability to correctly estimate canopy cover of shrubs. A high degree of accuracy was obtained with photo scales of 1:4,000 or larger and flatbed scanning rates from films or prints of 300 lines per inch or larger. Smaller scale images were of value in detecting retrospective changes in cover of large shrubs, but failed to detect smaller shrubs. Excellent results were obtained using inexpensive 35-millimeter cameras and new super-fine grain film such as Kodak's Royal Gold(trademark) (ASA 100) film or megapixel digital cameras. New image-processing software, such as SigmaScan Pro(trademark), makes it possible to accurately measure areas up to 1 hectare in size for total cover and density in 10 minutes compared to several hours or days of field work. In photographs with scales of 1:1,000 and 1:2,000, it was possible to detect cover and density of up to four dominant shrub species. Canopy cover and other parameters such as width, length, feet diameter, and shape factors can be nearly instantaneously measured for each individual shrub yielding size distribution histograms and other statistical data on plant community structure. Use of the technique is being evaluated in a four-year study of military training impacts at Fort Irwin, California, and results compared with image processing using conventional aerial photography and satellite imagery, including the new 1-meter pixel IKONOS images. The technique is a valuable new emerging tool to accurately assess vegetation structure and landscape changes due to military or other land-use disturbances.

Hansen, D. J. and W. K. Ostler (2001). Plant-damage assessment technique for evaluating military vehicular impacts to vegetation in the Mojave Desert, U.S. Department of Energy: 15 p.
	
Hansen, D. J. and W. K. Ostler (2005). "Assessment technique for evaluating military vehicular impacts to vegetation in the Mojave desert." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 193-205.
	A new plant-damage assessment technique was developed. The technique consists of linear transects the width of a military vehicle's tracks located in existing tracks in the soil (usually during a prior training rotation period of 30 days or since the last rain or wind storm). Measurements of vegetation within the tracks are used to determine the area of plant parts impacted. The percent of the plant parts damaged and the percent expected to recover are estimated. The technique documents prior-damage classes based on estimates of damage that plants have apparently experienced previously (as assessed from field indicators of damage such as plant shape and height). The technique was used to evaluate different vehicle types (rubber-tire wheels vs. metal tracks) in six areas at the NTC with different soils and training intensity levels. The technique provides tabular data that can be sorted and queried to show a variety of trends related to military vehicular impacts. It also is suitable for assessing other non-military off-road traffic impacts. The study reports: (1) differences in plant sensitivity to different vehicle track types, (2) plant cover and density by species and training area after prolonged impact, (3) the degree to which rubber tire wheels have less impact than metal tracks, and (4) mean percent survival was inversely proportional to the degree of prior damage received by the vegetation (i.e., plants previously impacted have lower survival than plants not previously impacted). (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hansen, R. M. (1976). "Foods of free-roaming horses in southern New Mexico." Journal of Range Management. 29(4): 347.
	White Sands Missle Range had 150-200 wild horses in 1974.  At this level of population they did not appear to be causing range deterioration.

Hansen, R. S. (1977). Land Use Withdrawal, McGregor Range, Fort Bliss, Texas. Fort Bliss, TX, Army Air Defense Center: 192 p.
	Environmental impacts associated with missile training and testing on McGregor Range are related mostly to debris recovery. Tactical air defense training for the United States Army is dependent on the continued withdrawal of McGregor Range lands. The land withdrawal limits Bureau of Land Management use for multiple use purposes in areas where military activities are concentrated; but, without the withdrawal, significant social, economic, and cultural impacts would occur. Adverse effects are continued soil erosion and disturbing vegetation and wildlife. Significant are the adverse impacts of military activities on archeological and historical sites. There is also loss of revenue from limiting the expansion of the grazing program of the entire range.

Hardy, S. E. and A. J. Palazzo (2002). Report on the workshop on new grass germplasms and invasive weed control, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory: 57 p.
	A two-day workshop provided information on new introduced and native grass germplasms adapted to the western United States and presented methods for fighting invasive weeds. The intent of the workshop was to help land managers choose native herbaceous plants to rehabilitate sites, reduce soil erosion, and increase training opportunities. Western rangelands are typically dry, with annual precipitation from 4 to 12 inches. Participants presented the land- management problems they face on their installations. Military facilities, which must balance training mission needs with environmental concerns, are seeking natives that are resistant to training activities and can germinate quickly in a semi-arid environment. ERDC-CRREL and the U.S. Department of Agriculture- Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) in Logan, Utah, have developed new cultivars and germplasms of native and introduced grasses that establish rapidly, compete with invasive weeds, and are resistant to land disturbances caused by military training activities. These plants were developed by improving the native and introduced grasses already growing on military ranges in the western United States. The new germplasms are also appropriate for other federal, state, or local agencies, highway right-of-ways, mine spoils, and other disturbed areas, they also will help managers satisfy the Presidential Order on native plants. Three germplasms have been released to date and eight more will be available. Related establishment studies have shown that seed mixtures using the native grasses along with rapidly establishing introduced species can quickly form a grass cover that inhibits invasion of noxious weeds and prevents erosion, and that, over time, will develop into a stand of predominantly native grasses.

Harper, M. G., A. Trame, et al. (1998). Management of Herbaceous Seeps and Wet Savannas for Threatened and Endangered Species. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 87 p.
	Wetland communities such as herbaceous seeps and wet savannas occur on military installations throughout the southeastern United States, usually as pockets of wet habitat within a matrix of drier longleaf pine woodlands. This larger community supports multiple uses, including the Department of Defense training and testing mission; threatened, endangered, and sensitive species (TES) conservation; and forest commodities production. The overall objectives of this research were to compile known information, identify gaps in knowledge, and stimulate research efforts on the potential positive and negative effects of human activities on the plant communities that serve as high-quality habitat for TES in the southeast. The objectives of this work unit were to reduce duplication of effort in TES plant conservation by providing information that can be used to improve the ecological and economic effectiveness of TES habitat management. This report provides ecological descriptions of these wetland communities, discusses land use practices and activities, and offers management recommendations.

Harrington, F. H. (2003). "Caribou, military jets and noise: The interplay of behavioural ecology and evolutionary psychology." Rangifer 14: 73-80.
	Whether a human activity is likely to have a negative impact on a species depends largely on how stimuli from that activity are interpreted and acted upon by individuals, within the context of their behavioural ecology. The interpretations and decisions made by individuals in response to these stimuli are largely governed by neural systems evolved by the species as adaptations to common and recurrent selective pressures. In this paper I will review previous findings concerning the responses of caribou to overflights by military jet aircraft in Labrador/Quebec and Alaska, casting them in an evolutionary psychological framework. One prediction from such an exercise is that identical stimuli (noise from jet overflights) that elicit similar responses (short-distance avoidance) can have quite different population consequences for sedentary (woodland) and migratory (barren-ground) ecotypes. For a female woodland caribou, which shares her calving range with a resident predator population, an increase in movements following disturbance may significantly increase her calf's exposure to predators. Similar movements by a female barren-ground caribou, which has fewer predators to contend with, may have only a negligible impact on her calf's predation risk. Thus woodland caribou may be more vulnerable to negative impacts of military jet noise during calving periods, dependent on predator density.

Harrington, F. H. and A. M. Veitch (1992). "Calving Success of Woodland Caribou Exposed to Low-Level Jet Fighter Overflights." Arctic 45(3): 213-218.
	Effects on Woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) of low- level military jet training ar Canadian Forces Base - Goose Bay (Labrador) were studied during the 1986-88 training seasons. Calf survival was periodically monitored during 1987 and 1988 in a sample of 15 females wearing satellite-tracked radiocollars. During 1987. each female's exposure to low-level overflights was experimentally manipulated on a daily basis. In 1988, daily exposure was determined by analyzing jet flight tracks following the low-level flying season. Calf survival was monitored by survey flights every 3-4 weeks. A calf survival index, the number of survey periods (maximum = 4) that a cow was accompanied by a calf, was negatively correlated with the female's exposure to low-level jet overflights during the calving and immediate post calving period and again during the period of insect harassment during summer. No significant relationship between calf survival and exposure to low-level flying was seen during the pre-calving period, during the late post-calving period prior to insect harassment. and during fall. In view of the continued depression of population growth in the woodland caribou population within the low-level training area, jets should avoid overflying woodland caribou calving range at least during the last week of May and the first three weeks of June.

Harrison, J. S. (1997). Erosion Modeling in Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site Using the Universal Soil Loss Equation and the GIS System - GRASS, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Hastings, N. E., P. P. Douglas, et al. (1997). Floristic Survey of Fort Benning.  Muscogee and Chattahoochee Counties, Georgia, Russell County, Alabama, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Haugen, L. B. (2002). Design and testing of a tactical vehicle tracking system for monitoring environmental impact at U.S. Army training installations. Fort Collins, CO, Colorado State University.
	
Haugen, L. B., P. D. Ayers, et al. (2003). "Vehicle movement patterns and vegetative impacts during military training exercises." Journal of Terramechanics 40(2): 83-95.
	The operation of off-road vehicles during military training exercises can affect the environmental conditions of training lands by removing or disturbing vegetation. The use of global positioning systems (GPS)-based vehicle tracking systems can help to characterize the movement of vehicles during training exercises for the purpose of quantifying vegetative impacts. The combination of GPS positions of vehicles in the field during a training exercise, and geographic information system (GIS) maps of the training installation can provide information about vehicle-specific vegetation impacts of a training exercise, as related to vehicle locations, turning radius and velocity. Such relationships can be used to estimate off-road vegetation impacts. Twenty GPS-based vehicle tracking systems were installed on vehicles of the US Army 3rd Brigade 1/14 Cavalry to evaluate vegetation impacts during a 10 day reconnaissance training exercise at Yakima Training Center in Yakima, WA. The vehicle tracking systems were programmed to record the position of the vehicles every second. The resulting vehicle tracking data were analyzed for quantity of travel per day of the training activity, quantity of travel on and off roads, off-road vehicle dynamic properties turning radius and velocity, and off-road vegetation removed. The vehicles were in motion an average of 8.4% (approximately 2 h per day) of the training exercise time. The average distance traveled per day on roads was 33.5 km, and the average distance traveled per day off-roads was 7.7 km. On average, the vehicles spent 16% of their off-road traveling time at turning radii less than 20 m. Vegetation impacts were compared for different missions. The zone reconnaissance mission produced the highest vegetation impact per distance traveled. (C) 2003 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hayden, T. J. (1999). Research Plan To Evaluate the Relationship Between Maneuver Training Activities and Red-cockaded Woodpecker Populations and Habitats on Fort Stewart, GA. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 23 p.
	 The U.S. Army must maintain an adequate land base to meet current and future requirements for realistic training and operations in support of its mission. To fulfill long-term mission requirements, the military must achieve environmental objectives of sustainability of training lands and full compliance with conservation requirements under law. The Army is committed to maintaining its role as a national leader in the conservation of threatened and endangered species on Army lands. The purpose of this research plan is to develop and implement protocols to evaluate the relationship between maneuver training activities and Red-cockaded Woodpecker (RCW) populations and habitats on Fort Stewart, GA. This research plan meets requirements of the 1996 "Management Guidelines for the Red-cockaded Woodpecker on Army Installations" and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) October 1996 biological opinion to develop and implement a peer-reviewed monitoring program to evaluate potential training effects on RCWs. It is anticipated that the 1996 Army guidelines will be implemented on Fort Stewart prior to the 2000 RCW breeding season pending completion and approval of the installation's Endangered Species Management Plan.

Hayden, T. J. and D. J. Tazik (1993). Integrated natural resources monitoring on Army lands and its application to conservation of neotropical birds. Status and Management of Neotropical Birds. General Technical Report RM-229, USDA  Forest Service: 258-264.
	
Hazlett, D. L., C. A. Popolizio, et al. (1997). Floristic Survey of Camp Guernsey.  Platte County, Wyoming, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Heaton, J. S., F. Davenport, et al. (2004). Management of desert tortoises and their habitat on public lands using ecosystem management decision support. 89th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America - Lessons of Lewis and Clark: Ecological Exploration of Inhabited Landscapes, Portland, OR, USA, Ecolocigal Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	
Hepner, G. F., T. L. Logan, et al. (1998). "Spatial query for decision support of cross-country movement." Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing(54): 1617-1621.
	This paper discusses the use and evaluation of a query language processor (IDQUERY) for decision support of cross- country movement (CCM) in an image-based geographic information system (VICAR-IBIS).  Queries are based on Boolean, arithmetic, and logical operators that interrogate the GIS data layers on a pixel by pixel basis for immediate display.  Data layers consisting of soils, surface configuration, and vegetation data are queried for analyses related to cross-country movement.  These analyses include the determination and display of areas where slopes limit mobility, vegetation acts as a barrier, and soil areas are prone to decreased load-carrying capacity under conditions of increased soil moisture.  Query processing yields results comparable to those obtained using conventional CCM techniques and analysis.  Query processing in the CCM application can provide flexible decision support in time-critical, limited data situations.  This performance exceeds current methods and is not likely to be available in expert systems or other AI approaches in the near future. 

Hercock, M. (2002). "Integrating local environmental management and federal/state interests through governance: The case of the Garden Island Environmental Advisory Committee." Environmental Management 30(3): 313-326.
	The apparently unresolvable differences between managing national defense and local conservation, public recreation, and scientific research can be overcome through an advisory committee, with a strong and dedicated entity to drive the processes of governance and change. The case of the Garden Island Environmental Advisory Committee shows how the organizational and political difficulties of integrating state interests and federal concerns were met. Garden Island, off the coast of Perth, the capital of the State of Western Australia, is a base for the Royal Australian Navy which is administered by the federal Department of Defence. Examples are given of the committee's approach to integrated environmental management and the implementation of the Navy's environmental policy. [References: 98] 98

Herl, B. K. (2000). Predicting tactical training patterns on military lands. Fort Collins, CO, Colorado State University.
	
Herl, B. K., W. W. Doe, et al. (2005). "Use of military training doctrine to predict patterns of maneuver disturbance on the landscape. I. Theory and methodology." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 353-371.
	Modern-day military maneuvers, involving tactical formations of wheeled and tracked vehicles, can have significant physical and environmental impacts on the landscape. Numerous scientific studies of these impacts have been conducted, most notably the post-impact assessments of General Patton's tank maneuvers of the early 1940s in the Mojave Desert of California and Arizona. On a smaller scale, numerous studies of military vehicle impacts have been conducted on military training lands throughout the United States, Canada and Europe. These studies have used a variety of measurement techniques, to include ground level photography and in situ measurements, aerial photography, satellite imagery and vehicle-mounted global positioning systems (GPS) data to define the footprint, patterns and magnitude of disturbances on the landscape. These disturbances are highly variable and can occur over tens of thousands of acres. Because scientists and land managers are generally not familiar with military decision-making, tactical doctrine, and vehicle-weapons systems capabilities, it is difficult for them to predict patterns of disturbance a priori. Even during post-event impact analysis, a full understanding of why and how maneuver disturbance patterns occur may not be readily apparent to them. This limitation can preclude knowledgeable planning, design and repair of damaged lands. In this case study, military tacticians and physical scientists developed an integrated methodology to predict these disturbance patterns more explicitly. The goal of the study was to provide land managers with a tool for understanding how these patterns evolve, and in turn, allow them to better plan and design mitigation efforts to sustain the landscape. The methodology combines a military terrain analysis technique, the modified combined obstacle overlay (MCOO), with an applied military tactics filter to predict where vehicle impacts would be most likely. A terrain and tactical analysis of the landscape at the Combat Maneuver Training Center-Live Fire (CMTC-LF) Area at the US Army Grafenwohr Training Area, Germany, was conducted using maps, digital ortho-photography, spatial data and onsite reconnaissance to determine the tactical footprint and potential disturbance patterns caused by a new training mission. Part I of this study describes the background, theory and approach used to develop the methodology. Part II describes the field-based validation of the methodology, using post-maneuver ground observations and sampling to test the methodology's predictions. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hernando, A. M. (1999). Effects of Military Wheeled Vehicles on Soil Compaction in the Chihuahuan Desert. Biological Sciences. El Paso, University of Texas: 125 p.
	no abstract

Heywood, C. E. and R. M. Yager (2003). Simulated ground-water flow in the Hueco Bolson, an alluvial-basin aquifer system near El Paso, Texas. Albuquerque, N.M, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey: 73 p.
	
Hickson, D. E. (1988). History of Wildland Fires on Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. Cocoa Beach, FL, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,  John F. Kennedy Space Center: 39 p.
	The fire history of the past 50 years for Vandenberg AFB, California was determined using aerial photography, field investigation, and historical and current written records. This constitutes a record of the vegetation age classes for the entire base. The location, cause, and fuel type for sixty fires from this time period were determined. The fires were mapped and entered into a geographic infomation system (GIS) for Vandenberg. Fire history maps derived from this GIS were printed at 1:9600 scale and are on deposit at the Vandenberg Environmental Task Force Office. Although some ecologically significant plant communities on Vandenberg are adapted to fire, no natural fire frequency could be determined, since only one fire possibly caused by lightning occurred in the area now within the base since 1937. Observations made during this study suggest that burning may encourage the invasion of exotic species into chaparral, in particular Burton Mesa or sandhill chaparral, an unusual and geographically limited form of chaparral found on the base.

Higgins, T. R. and R. A. Price (1989). Dust and erosion control methods for U.S. Army construction projects in Honduras. Vicksburg, MS, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station: 102 p.
	The US Army, Army Reserve, and Army National Guard Engineer units are involved in a joint US/Honduran venture to develop the infrastructure of Honduras. As part of the venture, several roads and airfields are being constructed. This construction has led to improved commerce in several areas of the country, but has also produced dust and erosion problems. Dust on road ways impairs driver visibility and can create serious safety hazards. Erosion of banks and slopes by runoff water has led to roadway failures. Exposed soils on or adjacent to runways are susceptible to erosion from wind and rotor- or propwash, creating hazardous conditions for aviators and increasing aircraft maintenance cost. The problem is to control dust and to reduce or eliminate the erosive effects of runoff economically while using assets available in-country. Keywords: Erosion control; Circuit engineering. (KT)

Hill, S. J. and K. French (2003). "Response of the soil seed-bank of Cumberland Plain Woodland to heating." Austral Ecology 28(1): 14-22.
	Abstract Soil was investigated in a Cumberland Plain Woodland community to determine the presence of a soil seed-bank and whether species richness and abundance of plants germinating from it were affected by heating such as that experienced in a fire. Soil samples were taken from the Holsworthy Military Area, in the south-eastern region of the Sydney Basin, New South Wales, Australia, and one of four treatments was applied; soil was heated to 80°C, 40°C, unheated or unheated with litter not removed. Sixty-eight species, representing 26 families including 11 exotic and 57 native species germinated from the soil. Herbs and grasses dominated and were in similar proportions to those surveyed in the above-ground vegetation, suggesting that the soil seed-bank reflected the current structure of the vegetation, although species composition differed. Species responded differently to heating. The seeds of some species germinated when heated at a higher temperature (80°C), particularly those from the family Fabaceae, whereas other species were more common in unheated or lightly heated samples (40°C). This suggests that fire is likely to change the species composition of the above-ground vegetation and indicates that management must ensure that species that do not germinate when heated are maintained, as well as those species that germinate following heating. A large proportion of soil seed-bank species showed low germination rates in the trials, and 112 above-ground species did not germinate in the soil samples. We do not understand whether species of these two sets do not produce a soil-stored seed-bank or whether the seed-bank has been depleted by past practices at Holsworthy. Further research is needed.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR

Hinchman, R. R. (1993). Proceedings: Special session on the rehabilitation of US Army Training Lands, Second Annual Conference of the Society for Ecological Restoration, held in Chicago, Illinois, April 29--May 3, 1990, Argonne National Lab, IL, Funder: Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 143 p.
	US Army lands are currently being degraded at a rate that often exceeds natural resource conservation goals. The US Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories is developing and implementing the Integrated Training Area Management (ITAM) program at several installations in the United States and Germany to reverse the rate of degradation and maintain realistic training habitat. The ITAM program includes environmental education/awareness tools, revegetation and erosion-control technologies, standardized land-monitoring methodologies, and computerized land-management decision-support systems that are integrated with military training mission requirements to provide a long-term, land-management program.

Hinchman, R. R., K. G. McMullen, et al. (1990). Rehabilitation of Military Training Areas Damaged by Tracked Vehicles at Fort Carson, Colorado. Final rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Lab: 64 p.
	The U.S. Army installation at Fort Carson, Colorado, has a long history of tactical training activities by tracked and wheeled vehicles. These training maneuvers have caused extensive damage to the soils and vegetation of the semiarid pinyon-juniper woodland and shortgrass prairie ecosystems of the installation. The resulting erosion and loss of training realism are serious problems for the Army. The goal of this Facilities Engineering Applications Program (FEAP) project was to develop and demonstrate ecologically effective and economically feasible soil rehabilitation and revegetation techniques to increase soil stability and provide a more realistic training environment. In areas where training traffic was excluded, vegetative cover increased and the percent bare ground decreased on both treated and untreated shortgrass prairie areas. The prairie areas receiving the revegetation treatment are recovering faster and have higher percentages of desirable native grasses (both volunteer and planted) than the untreated areas, which tend to recover more slowly and have less grass cover and more weedy species. The pinyon-juniper areas are recovering more slowly due to harsher site conditions.

Hinchman, R. R., S. D. Zellmer, et al. (1991). Freihoelser Forst Local Training Area rehabilitation project. Final report. Progress rept., Argonne National Lab, IL, Energy Systems Division: 70 p.
	Intensive and continued use of the Freihoelser Forst Local Training Area (LTA) for military training activities had resulted in serious environmental problems, exemplified by a lack of vegetative cover and severe erosion by water and wind. The project's goal was to develop and demonstrate rapid, cost-effective methods to stabilize the LTA's barren, eroding maneuver areas and make training conditions more realistic. The major factors limiting rehabilitation efforts were the sandy, infertile, and acidic soils. The project was conducted in two phases. Phase I demonstrated and evaluated three separate rehabilitation treatments ranging in cost from moderate to expensive. Each treatment used a different type of soil amendment (fertilizer and straw, compost, or chicken manure), but all used identical seedbed preparation methods and seed mixtures. Phase I was conducted on relatively small replicated plots and was monitored three times during each growing season. All three treatments satisfactorily reestablished vegetation and controlled erosion. Because of their small size, the Phase I demonstration plots had only a minor stabilizing effect on the erosion problems of the LTA as a whole. The Phase II treatment was based on lessons teamed from Phase I and from other revegetation projects in Germany. Phase II revegetated a large area of the LTA, which included nearly all of the most severely disturbed land. Phase II, which was monitored in the same way as Phase I but for a shorter period of time, was highly successful in stabilizing most areas treated. The revegetation plant community was dominated by native grasses and legumes that stabilized the loose, sandy soils and improved the training realism of a major portion of the LTA.

Hinchman, R. R., S. D. Zellmer, et al. (1989). Freihoelser Forst Local Training Area Demonstration Project: Prescription development and installation, Argonne National Lab, IL, Energy Systems Dividion, Funder: Department of Energy, Washington, DC: 43 p.
	The Freiholser Forst Local Training Area (LTA) Rehabilitation Demonstration Project is part of the Integrated Training Area Management program being developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers' Construction Engineering Research Laboratory for the Seventh Army Training Command of the US Army in Europe. The rehabilitation demonstration project was begun in 1987 to develop and demonstrate rapid, cost-effective methods to stabilize the LTA's barren, eroding maneuver areas and make training conditions more realistic. The sandy, infertile, and acidic soils at the LTA are considered the major factor limiting rehabilitation efforts there. The project involves the evaluation of three procedures to revegetate the soils, each incorporating identical methods for preparing the seedbed and a single seed mixture consisting of adapted, native species but using different soil amendments. All three treatments have satisfactorily reestablished vegetation and controlled erosion on the demonstration plots at the LTA, but their costs have varied widely.

Hinojos, J. and A. Canaris (1988). "Metazoan parasites of Himantopus mexicanus muller (Aves) from southwestern Texas, with a checklist of helminth parasites from North America." Journal of Parasitology 74(2): 326-331.
	Nineteen species of helminths were recovered from 34 of 35 black-necked stilts, Himantopus mexicanus Muller, collected from the Fort Bliss ponds, El Paso County, Texas. New host records are marked with an*. The species identified were: Acoleus vaginatus, Davainea himantopodis, Diplophallus polymorphus, *Eurycestus avoceti, Hymenolepis himantopodis, Hymenolepis sp.  1, Infula macrophallus, Cloacitrema michiganensis, Cyclocoelum lanceolatum, Notocotylus sp., Parastrigea mexicanus, *Tanaisia fedtschenkoi, Capillaria sp., *C. anatis, *C. controta, *C. mergi, *Chevreuxia americana, Eustronglydes mergorum, and *Splendidofilaria sp. Six species of mallophagan lice and 1 species of nasal mite, Rhinonyssus himantopus, were recovered. Helminths showed little concentration for dominance (0.09), were not very evenly distributed (0.49 plus or minus 0.08) nor very diverse (0.73 plus or minus 0.14), and most species were highly aggregated. The helminth community consisted of an unusually large number of core species (10). Three large species of tapeworms exhibited mostly paired infections, were mutually exclusive, and were negatively associated (-1).

Hirst, R. A., R. F. Pywell, et al. (2003). "The resistance of chalk grassland to disturbance." Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 368-379.
	1.
Concepts of ecosystem stability, resilience and resistance have been discussed theoretically
for nearly three decades. Understanding the effects of habitat disturbance and
mechanisms of recovery in practice are vital for successful conservation management
and restoration, particularly of subseral communities with high conservation interest
and sites subject to unavoidable disturbances. Chalk grasslands are one such habitat,
with high European conservation importance, and the greatest remaining extent in
north-west Europe lies within the Salisbury Plain Training Area (SPTA), the largest UK
military training area. In order to understand the resistance and recovery of this habitat
type, we undertook an experimental approach using imposed disturbance treatments.
2.
An experiment was designed to compare the disturbance effects of a Land Rover, a
truck and a Challenger II tank on a tall
Bromopsis erecta
-dominated chalk grassland
community on the SPTA. Permanent quadrats were established on a site experimentally
disturbed by single and multiple passes of the three vehicles and a tank turn (slew). Postdisturbance
changes were recorded in the vegetation and soils in permanent quadrats.
3.
One year after the disturbance, all the treatments still had significant soil compaction
effects and all treatments except the single Land Rover pass resulted in a significant
reduction in sward height. The grassland community sampled was significantly less
resistant to disturbance by tracked vehicles than wheeled vehicle disturbance, with
tracked vehicles creating the greatest recorded soil compaction and exposure of bare
soil and longer-term changes in sward composition.
4.
Ordination techniques were used to characterize post-disturbance successional trajectories.
These suggest that chalk grassland is significantly less resistant to disturbance
caused by multiple passes of tracked vehicles and tracked vehicle turns. Chalk grassland
recovery from these types of disturbance is less predictable.
5.
Identifying vegetation community resistance assists understanding of the ecosystem
response to long-term and cumulative stress and facilitates strategic management of
habitats where disturbance events are commonplace, especially in areas of high nature
conservation interest. These data demonstrate that small-scale but acute disturbance
events can have significant effects on plant community composition, and can have wider
reaching impacts on other aspects of site management. There are important implications
for the management of off-road vehicles in recreational and agricultural contexts,
and for the formulation of a strategic sustainable management plan for the SPTA that
incorporates both military and conservation objectives.
6.
Synthesis and applications.
Resistance to disturbance is not necessarily an additive
function. Managers of chalk grasslands should limit activities that create high intensity
disturbance events because the succession trajectory following such events may be
less direct and with less predictable outcomes than that following lower intensity disturbances.
Increased predictability of succession trajectories following medium to low
disturbance events means these types of disturbance might be used deliberately to
create short-term and small-scale heterogeneity in both species composition and sward
structure. Site managers should be aware that certain activities not previously considered
to be potentially damaging might be creating significant habitat disturbance
effects, as changes to soil structure, functioning and fauna can occur in the absence of
changes in plant community composition.

Hirst, R. A., R. F. Pywell, et al. (2005). "The resilience of calcareous and mesotrophic grasslands following disturbance." Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 498-506.
	1.
Understanding habitat disturbance and recovery is vital for successful conservation
management and restoration, particularly of subseral communities with high nature
conservation interest and sites subject to unavoidable disturbance pressures, such as
that arising from access and recreational activities.
2.
Grassland resilience was investigated on the Salisbury Plain Training Area (SPTA)
in southern England, the largest of the UK military training areas. SPTA contains the
greatest expanse of unimproved chalk grassland in north-west Europe, a habitat of
particular nature conservation interest.
3.
Historical aerial photographs were used to identify 82 calcareous and mesotrophic
grassland sites disturbed over a 50-year time period. Vegetation, soils and seed bank
data were collected from each old disturbance site. Revegetation time periods following
disturbance were compared, and habitat resilience following disturbance investigated
using the succession of surface vegetation along the chronosequence, the combined
changes of vegetation and soil chemistry, and finally vegetation and seed bank
composition.
4.
The sampled calcareous grasslands were less resilient following disturbance than
the mesotrophic grasslands, with slower colonization of bare ground and target
species re-assembly. The mesotrophic grasslands typically took between 30 and 40 years
to re-establish following disturbance, whereas calcareous grasslands took at least
50 years.
5.
Even after such long time periods, there remained subtle but significant differences
between the vegetation composition of the disturbed and undisturbed swards. Perennial
forb species, particularly hemicryptophytes, persisted at higher frequencies in swards
disturbed 50 years ago than in undisturbed swards.
6.
Synthesis and applications
. Prediction of habitat resilience following disturbance is
dependent on which components of the system are investigated. However, data such as
that presented here can help land managers understand how palimpsests of current
habitat characteristics may have evolved, and how disturbance regimes may be managed
in the future. It is likely that the resilience of grasslands such as those on SPTA may have
been overestimated, and perceptions of habitat carrying capacity for disturbance events
may require re-evaluation.

Hirst, R. A., R. F. Pywell, et al. (2000). "Assessing habitat disturbance using an historical perspective: the case of Salisbury Plain military training area." Journal of Environmental Management 60: 181-193.
	
Hochstrasser, T., D. Peters, et al. (2002). A Bibliography of Important Plant Species in the Chihuahuan Desert of North America (1904 - 2002). Champaign, IL, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 245 p.
	The Chihuahuan Desert covers an area of 453,000 km2 in the United States and Mexico.  Managers of military lands in the desert require a detailed understanding of installation natural resources.  A comprehensive bibliography of current research and information on desert plants can is needed.  The objective of this work was to assemble as much published ecological information as possible about five dominant arid land species found in the North American Chihuahuan Desert.  The species of focus were selected because of their importance in the desert grassland and shrubland communities of thedesert.Chapter 2 contains selected references that significantly contribute to the understanding of arid land ecology, but do not specifically speak about the species of interest.  Chapter 3 contains reference information on Bouteloua eriopoda (black grama).  Chapter 4 contains references on Pleuraphis mutica (=Hilaria mutica, tobosa).  Chapter 5 contains Larrea tridentata (creosotebush).  Chapter 6 contains Prosopis glandulosa (honey mesquite).  Chapter 7 contains Flourensia cernua (tarbush).  Furthermore, information gathered on an important subdominant half-shrub, Gutierrezia sarothrae (=Xanthocephalum sarothrae, broom snakeweed), is presented in Chapter 8.  Chapter 9 contains reference information on the ecology of annual species.

Hochstrasser, T., D. Peters, et al. (2005). Determining research gaps in disturbance data for Fort Bliss and a conceptual model, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 39 p.
	Numerous research and outside monitoring efforts have been completed for Fort Bliss, Texas. This report summarizes results from previous experimental studies on military disturbances on Fort Bliss and identifies research gaps in disturbance data. These studies (and others) are used to develop conceptual models of the impact of military disturbances on vegetation dynamics in arid lands.

Hochstrasser, T., D. Peters, et al. (2005). Simulation of vegetation recovery from military disturbances on Fort Bliss, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center,  Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: 88 p.
	This report covers two years of work by the Jornada Experimental Range Department at New Mexico State University and the U.S.Army ERDC/CERL. The overall goal of the project was to enhance the
vegetation simulation modeling capabilities of Fort Bliss, Texas, for evaluating the effects of military disturbances on arid land vegetation. The aim of this work was to mechanistically predict shifts from one
community type to another by determining primary linkages between community types.

Hollinger, K. (2001). Homesteads on Fort Richardson, Alaska. G. R. Lesondak and R. H. Sackett. Fort Collins, CO, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University: 105 p.
	
Holloway, A. K. and G. D. Schnell (1997). "Relationship between numbers of the endangered American burying beetle Nicrophorus americanus Olivier (Coleoptera: Silphidae) and available food resources." Biological Conservation 81(1-2): 145-152.
	The American burying beetle Nicrophorus americanus Oliver (Coleoptera:Silphidae), designated in the United States as an endangered species, requires vertebrate carcasses for feeding, breeding and rearing young (optimally 80-200 g for breeding, but beetles readily feed on smaller carcasses), Previous studies at the 29 000 ha Fort Chaffee Military Reservation, Arkansas and the 20 000 ha Camp Gruber Training Site, Oklahoma have shown that with habitat defined based on vegetation, the species is a habitat generalist when feeding. Given that the species was not selective relative to habitat type at Fort Chaffee, we investigated whether there was a relationship between numbers of beetles and measures of vertebrate abundance. For beetles, eight baited pitfall traps were set for three nights in 1992 and 1993 along each of the 52 transects where, in previous years, birds and mammals had been censused. Birds were counted using a modified point-count technique (five counts during May-June 1989-1991), and mammals were sampled with 'museum special' snap traps and rat traps (three two-day trapping periods during May-June 1989-1991). In analyzing 0-200 g mammals trapped and birds counted on the transects, significant correlations were found of the number of American burying beetles caught with biomass of mammals; biomass of mammals plus birds; numbers of species of mammals; and numbers of individual mammals. American burying beetles frequented sites where small vertebrates (particularly mammals) were relatively abundant, irrespective of the predominant habitat at that site. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Host, G. E., C. W. A Ramm, et al. (1993). Field Sampling and Data Analysis Methods for Development of Ecological Land Classifications: An Application on the Manistee National Forest. Forest Service general technical rept, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN, Minnesota Univ.-Duluth, Natural Resources Research Inst.: 50 p.
	An Ecological Classification and Inventory (EC&I) of the Manistee National Forest was conducted to provide the Forest with information needed as an ecological framework for integrated resource planning and management. A companion to the field guide, the General Technical Report presents the technical details of the development of the EC&I. It discusses the procedures used for developing the sampling design and methods, specific procedures for sampling vegetation and soils, and techniques for managing and analyzing data.

Houser, J. N., P. J. Mulholland, et al. (2003). Disturbance of upland soil and vegetation affects the export of nutrients and sediments to streams during storm events. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	added 3/13/06

Houser, J. N., P. J. Mulholland, et al. (2005). "Catchment disturbance and stream metabolism: patterns in ecosystem respiration and gross primary production along a gradient of upland soil and vegetation disturbance." Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24(3): 538-552.
	Catchment characteristics determine the inputs of sediments and nutrients to streams. As a result, natural or anthropogenic disturbance of upland soil and vegetation can affect instream processes. The Fort Benning Military Installation (near Columbus, Georgia) exhibits a wide range of upland disturbance levels because of spatial variability in the intensity of military training. This gradient of disturbance was used to investigate the effect of upland soil and vegetation disturbance on rates of stream metabolism (ecosystem respiration rate [ER] and gross primary production rate [GPP]). Stream metabolism was measured using an open-system, single-station approach. All streams were net heterotrophic during all seasons. ER was highest in winter and spring and lowest in summer and autumn. ER was negatively correlated with catchment disturbance level in winter, spring, and summer, but not in autumn. ER was positively correlated with abundance of coarse woody debris, but not significantly related to % benthic organic matter. GPP was low in all streams and generally not significantly correlated with disturbance level. Our results suggest that the generally intact riparian zones of these streams were not sufficient to protect them from the effect of upland disturbance, and they emphasize the role of the entire catchment in determining stream structure and function.

Houston, S. T. (2002). Simulation of munitions effects on ecosystem contamination in an Army range impact area. Fort Collins, CO, Colorado State University: 193 p 
	As a military service, the Army faces unique challenges in maintaining its warfighting readiness while practicing sound environmental stewardship of its training lands. The environmental implications of using firing ranges and impact areas are becoming more important. These include health and safety risks due to unexploded ordnance. Chemical contaminants such as Trinitrotoluene (TNT), Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), and High Melting Explosive (HMX) are subject to environmental fate and transport processes congruent with the ecological setting in to which they are released.

An understanding and application of environmental and ecological science provides a vehicle for adequately addressing the impact area contamination problem. This dissertation demonstrates a methodology that integrates these disciplines into a problem solving approach that provides a foundation for effective resource management and future research.

An ecological framework for assessment of environmental risk is used to evaluate the relative resilience of eleven major Army impact areas to explosive residue contamination. It identifies ecosystem properties that directly influence the rates of environmental fate and transport processes in the natural system.

First approximations of munitions disturbance and contaminant loading are made and field data collected and analyzed from Fort Greely, Alaska. This yields a set of soil properties such as soil organic matter content that are related to an impact area's ability to attenuate contaminant fate and transport. Organic matter content of the soils proved to be a good predictor of cation exchange capacity and it also is a good descriptor of crater disturbance.

SOM dynamics provides an integrative link between environmental process and ecological setting resolving the complex problem of impact area contamination into one that is more understandable and manageable. CENTURY SOM dynamics simulation adequately predicted levels of primary production and soil carbon for the modeled ecotypes of Fort Greely, Alaska. Simulated SOM rates-of-change resulting from munitions use provided insight into ecological and environmental processes affecting munitions contamination, and the ability to quantify contaminant attenuation.

Finally, a geographic information system enables an integrated analysis that produces an environmentally and ecologically based measure of the system's ability to attenuate contamination for use in decision making.

Houston, S. T., W. W. Doe, III, et al. (2001). "Environmental Risk of Army Ranges and Impact Areas:  An Ecological Framework for Assessment." Federal Facilities Environmental Journal Spring 2001: 93-111.
	The U.S. Army manages approximately 12 million acres of federal land within the 50 states.  As a military service, the Army faces unique challenges in maintaining its warfighting readiness while practicing sound environmental stewardship of its training lands.  Maneuver training and its associated environmental impacts have been well documented.  As population densities increase near installations, the environmental implications of using firing ranges and impact area are becoming more important.  These include health and safety risks due to unexploded ordnance (UXO) and environmental contamination from explosive constituent residuals of fired munitions and UXO.  Chemical contaminants such as trinitrotoluene (TNT), Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), and High Melting Explosive (HMX) are subject to environmental fate and transport congruent with the ecological setting into which they are released.  An evaluative framework and assessment method where developed to measure the resilience of 11 major Army impact areas to explosive residue contamination.  The method compared the ecological setting of each impact area against a common set of environmental fate and transport processes at the macro level.  The ecological setting identified key characteristics (soil quality, effective growing season, and regional moisture conditions) that directly influence the rates of principal fate and transport processes (dissolution, adsorption, and biological action) in the natural system.  The combination of ecological setting and fate and transport processes provides insights that can aid the Army in strategic decisions that integrate potential environmental risks on its training lands.

Howard, H. R., J. A. Guretzky, et al. (2004). Land rehabiltation and maintenance equipment sources: volume II - sources by state. Champaign, IL, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Lab 197 p.
	Military training can often be destructive to the environment. Environmental impacts associated with heavy training include soil compaction, soil erosion, siltation of waterways and wetlands, increased threat of flooding, loss of wildlife habitat, declining biodiversity, and invasion by noxious weeds. Planning and implementing land rehabilitation projects generally involves some soil movement, establishment of vegetation, stabilization and hardening of sites, etc. Procurement of appropriate heavy equipment and other specialized equipment is sometimes a difficult task that involves obtaining multiple vendors, especially when procuring equipment for rental, lease, or purchase. This report and associated database were created to help land managers easily identify and obtain potential vendors for the equipment needed for land rehabilitation projects. This report includes a comprehensive and up-to-date list of heavy equipment vendors within the United States, primarily for rental or leasing purposes, which includes vendors of construction, agriculture, and other equipment needed for erosion control, and land rehabilitation and maintenance. Volume I of this report lists vendors located within 100 miles of Army installations, and National vendors. Volume II lists all vendors state-bystate.

Howard, H. R., S. N. McDowell, et al. (2004). Land rehabilitation and maintenance equipment sources Volume 1-Source lists by installation and national vendors. Champaign, IL, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 425 p.
	Military training can often be destructive to the environment. Environmental impacts associated with heavy training include soil compaction, soil erosion, siltation of waterways and wetlands, increased threat of flooding, loss of wildlife habitat, declining biodiversity, and invasion by noxious weeds. Planning and implementing land rehabilitation projects generally involves some soil movement, establishment of vegetation, stabilization and hardening of sites, etc. Procurement of appropriate heavy equipment and other specialized equipment is sometimes a difficult task that involves obtaining multiple vendors, especially when procuring equipment for rental, lease, or purchase. This report and associated database were created to help land managers easily identify and obtain potential vendors for the equipment needed for land rehabilitation projects. This report includes a comprehensive and up-to-date list of heavy equipment vendors within the United States, primarily for rental or leasing purposes, which includes vendors of construction, agriculture, and other equipment needed for erosion control, and land rehabilitation and maintenance.

Hunt, R. P. (1996). Evaluation of land value study (ELVS)/army training and testing area carrying capacity (ATTACC). 5th Annual LRAM/ITAM Workshop: Utilizing ITAM as a Tool for Integrating Training and Land Management, Fort McCoy and UWSP Extension.
	
Hunter, R. B. (1992). Lessons from five years of vegetation monitoring on the Nevada Test Site, Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Co., Inc., Las Vegas, NV, Analytical Services Dept.: 25 p.
	In 1987 the US Department of Energy funded a formal, extensive monitoring program for the flora and fauna on the Nevada Test Site. The goal was to understand and record changes with time In the distribution and abundance of the plants and animals. The need to detect changes, rather than do a one-time characterization, required careful selection of parameters and the use of permanent plots to distinguish spatial from temporal variability. Repeated measurements of the same plots revealed errors and imprecision which required changes in training and data collection techniques. Interpretation of trends after several years suggested it will be important to monitor not only changes, but causes of change, such as soil moisture and herbivory. Finally, the requirement for records to be available over long periods of time poses problems of archiving and publication. This report consists of viewgraphs presenting the findings of the study.

Hunter, R. G. (2005). Application of the EDYS Model to Evaluate Control Methods for Invasive Plants at Fort Carson, Colorado. Final rept. Fort Collins, CO, MWH Americas Fort Collins, CO: 183 p 
	SERDP project CS1145 explored alternative control and assessment strategies for knapweeds and annual brome, two non-indigenous plant taxa, on US military installations. These plant taxa infest large areas of the Western United States and they are a major concern for military bases. Heavy maneuvering of troops and equipment causes large disturbances where native vegetation is stressed, soil is lost, and invasive noxious plants often take hold. Replacing stands of noxious weeds with native plant communities on military training grounds will reduce soil erosion and create more sustainable ecological systems. Non-indigenous invasive plants can also reduce and destroy forage for livestock and wildlife, displace native plant species, increase fire frequency, reduce recreational opportunities, and can poison domestic animals. It is imperative to find economical, ecologically sound methods to control these weeds to minimize control costs and degradation of military training grounds.

Hunter, R. G., R. Mata-Gonzalez, et al. (2005). Application of the EDYS Model to Evaluate Control Methods for Invasive Plants at Yakima Training Center, Washington. Final rept. Fort Collins, CO, MWH Americas Fort Collins, CO: 166 p.
	SERDP project CS1145 explored alternative control and assessment strategies for knapweeds and annual brome, two non-indigenous plant taxa, on US military installations. These plant taxa infest large areas of the Western United States and they are a major concern for military bases. Heavy maneuvering of troops and equipment causes large disturbances where native vegetation is stressed, soil is lost, and invasive noxious plants often take hold. Replacing stands of noxious weeds with native plant communities on military training grounds will reduce soil erosion and create more sustainable ecological systems. Non-indigenous invasive plants can also reduce and destroy forage for livestock and wildlife, displace native plant species, increase fire frequency, reduce recreational opportunities, and can poison domestic animals. It is imperative to find economical, ecologically sound methods to control these weeds to minimize control costs and degradation of military training grounds.

Jackson, S. S. and S. G. Bourne (2005). Automated Procedure to Monitor Urban Encroachment Over Time on Fort Benning Military Installation. Technical rept. Vicksburg, MS, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Environmental Lab: 7 p.
	Concerns about the effects of urban encroachment occurring near military installations continue to grow. Urban encroachment impacts both the civilian population and the military installation. Urban growth and development negatively influence a military installation's ability to conduct training and maintain combat readiness, and they hinder the viability of the installation itself. The primary objective of this study was to monitor urban encroachment at Fort Benning, GA. A secondary objective was to utilize an efficient, more automated approach in extracting urban features from satellite imagery. This effort supports the long-term baseline ecosystem monitoring plan under the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), Ecosystem Management Project (SEMP), Ecosystem Characterization and Monitoring Initiative (ECMI).

Jacobson, S. K. and S. B. Marynowski (1997). "Public attitudes and knowledge about ecosystem management on department of defense land in Florida." Conservation Biology 11(3): 770-781.
	New ecosystem management policies at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, emphasize the need for public education and involvement in the changing focus of natural resource practices. To collect baseline information for ecosystem management, we measured and compared the knowledge, attitudes, and interests of critical Eglin audiences: recreational users and neighboring citizens. Factor analysis of surveys of 700 permitted recreational users and 1000 neighboring citizens revealed four content areas for measuring knowledge and attitudes: (1) native and endangered species, (2) fire ecology, (3) forest resources, and (4) ecosystem management. Overall, both audiences lacked basic ecological knowledge and held neutral to slightly positive attitudes toward the key content areas. Recreational users were significantly more knowledgeable than general citizens about native and endangered species, fire ecology, and forests. However, citizens held significantly more positive attitudes toward native and endangered species conservation and ecosystem management concepts. Eglin's consumptive recreationists (hunters and anglers) held the most negative views. Sociodemographic information from the surveys suggest that the recreational users and neighboring citizens are a stable, educable population that would respond positively to programs aimed at improving knowledge of and attitudes toward ecosystem management goals at Eglin.

Jahn, L. R., C. W. Cook, et al. (1984). An evaluation of US Army Natural Resource Management Programs on selected military installations an civil works projects, Report to the Secretary of the Army, U.S. Department of the Army from the Review Team: 37 p.
	
Jenkins, T. F., A. D. Hewitt, et al. (2005). "Representative sampling for energetic compounds at military training ranges." Environmental Forensics 6(1): 45-55.
	Field sampling experiments were conducted at various locations on training ranges at three military installations within North America. The areas investigated included an anti-tank range firing point and an anti-tank range impact area in Quebec, Canada, an artillery-range firing point in Alaska, USA, and an artillery-range impact area in Louisiana, USA. The purpose of this study was to develop practical sampling strategies to reliably estimate mean concentrations of residues from munitions found in surface soil at various types of liverfire training ranges. The ranges studied differ in the types of energetic residues deposited and the mode of deposition. In most cases, the major source zones for these residues are the top two or three centimeters of soil. Multi-increment sampling was used to reduce the variance between field sample replicates and to enhance sample representativeness. Based on these criteria the results indicate that a single or a few discrete samples do not provide representative data for these types of sites. However, samples built from at least 25 increments provided data that was sufficiently representative to allow for the estimation of energetic residue mass loading in surface soils and to characterize the training activity at a given location, thereby addressing two objectives that frequently are common to both environmental and forensic investigations..

Jessl, P., W. Koeppel, et al. (1986). Generically Based Mobility-Terrain Data Bases. Final rept., Battelle-Inst. e.V., Frankfurt am Main (Germany, F.R.): 211 p.
	This report contains an analysis of standard and advanced terrain data acquisition techniques for area mobility evaluations. In detail, generic terrain descriptors for FRG terrain conditions were investigated for a total of 35 cell areas. Relations among soil dynamic parameters and conventional mobility index numbers were analyzed for a total of 23 sites. Relationship between cone index field data and computer model data was investigated for a total of 19 sites. A total of 35 terrain sample cells of 10x10 km quadrangle size were selected by Battelle/WES within the FRG. These cells were identifying the most, medium and least representatives of a particular generic region which was determined by these factors: landform-topography; Natick slopes; average temperature/January; and mean value of annual rainfall. The cell characteristics were based on the following terrain factors: USCS soil type; agricultural land use; forest type; vegetation cover; and geology rock type.

Johnson, C. W. and J. P. Smith (1983). "Soil Loss Caused by Off-Road Vehicle Use on Steep Slopes." Transactions of the ASAE 26(2): 402-405, 411.
	
Johnson, D. (1997). Geomorphological, Geoecological, Geoarcheological, and Surficial Mapping Study of McGregor Guided Missile Range, Fort Bliss, New Mexico. Volume I. Plano, TX, Geo-marine Inc. 1: 412 p.
	The scope of the study is reflected in its title: to provide a general geomorphologic, soil, geoarcheologic, and surficial mapping study of the McGregor Range. The purpose is to produce an explanatory model of Quaternary landscape evolution. The study is also intended to provide baseline information on the geology, water resources, landforms, and soils of the McGregor Range, plus explore new and old concepts and background information as a collective intellectual resource base for future environmental assessments, for resource management, and for mitigation and compliance considerations.  In one sense this is geoarcheological study, but in another it is a geocological study, one that focuses en the dynamic processes that have operated to produce the modern landscape of McGregor Range and environs. This study included a three-day reconnaissance of parts of the McGregor Range.

Johnson, D. O., W. D. Severinghaus, et al. (1990). Return-On-Investment Study for Rehabilitation of Military Training Areas Damaged by Tracked Vehicles. Technical rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 46 p.
	At Fort Carson, CO, the impact of long-term, intense military training on vegetation and topography is becoming increasingly evident. After more than 20 years of intense training, vegetation is so reduced that it adversely impacts the quality of military training. In addition, large gullies have developed in some locations, making navigation by tracked vehicles difficult, if not impossible. Unless training use and proper land management are brought into balance, similar results can be expected to develop at the Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS) as training expands in that area. This report presents a return-on-investment (ROI) study of the benefits that should result from implementing a long-term vegetation management program at Fort Carson and PCMS. Study results show that rehabilitation and maintenance are cost-effective for the Army. Estimates of the Government's savings as Fort Carson and PCMS vary from over $299 million to more than $1.65 billion. Depending on assumptions about the replacement value of site facilities used, the ratio of cost savings to expenses for implementing a rehabilitation program varies from a low of 5, if original facility and land costs are held constant, to a high of more than 27, if current replacement costs are considered.

Johnson, F. L. (1982). "Effects of tank training activities on botanical features at Fort Hood, Texas, (USA)." Southwestern Naturalist 27(3): 309-314.
	Two sites, 1 relatively undisturbed and 1 heavily used for training activities, were sampled in the upland Juniperus ashei-Quercus fusiformis community. Effects of intensive tank training over a period of years are reduction of total plant cover by 60%; disturbance and consequent erosion of about 60% of the soil surface; reduction in density and cover of woody vegetation without any major change in species composition; and a major shift in herbaceous plant species from perennials to small annuals. Continued use of the same site for training will probably not result in much further deterioration.

Jones, D. (1999). Resources Monitoring on Fort Lewis Prairies: Evaluation of Sample Design, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Jones, D. (2000). Impacts of the M1A1 Abrams Tank on Vegetation and Soil Characteristics of a Grassland Ecosystem at Fort Lewis, Washington, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Jones, D. (2000). Vegetation Monitoring Protocols for the Central Oregon Training Site (COTS).
	
Jones, D. (2002). Ecological Effects of Light Armored Vehicle (LAV III) Travel at Yakima Training Center, Washington:  2001 Initial Impacts.
	
Jones, D. and C. Bagley (1998). Tracked Vehicle Impacts on Plant Community Characteristics Orchard Training Center: 1995-1997 Study Period, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Jones, D. and C. Bagley (2001). Tracked Vehicle Impacts on Plant Community Characteristics Orchard Training Center: 1995-1999 Study Period.
	
Jones, D. and G. Senseman (2000). Procedures for Supplemental Allocation and Reallocation of Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) Plots.
	
Jones, D. S. (1999). Resource Monitoring on Fort Lewis Prairies:  Evaluation of Statistical Power and Sampling Approach, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands, Colorado State University.
	
Jones, D. S. (2002). Monitoring Revegetation Success:  Protocol for Yakima Training Center.
	
Jones, D. S. (2003). Impacts of the M1A1 Abrams Tank on a Grassland Training Area at Fort Lewis, Washington Update Report 1998-2002.
	
Jones, D. S. (2003). Tracked Vehicle Impacts on Plant Community Characteristics at Orchard Training Center, Idaho 1995-2001:  Update of 1995-1999 Report, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands: 62.
	
Jones, D. S. and C. F. Bagley (1997). Tracked Military Vehicle Impacts on 3 Vegetation Communities at Yakima Training Center, Washington, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Jones, D. S. and C. F. Bagley (1998). Tracked vehicle impacts on plant community characteristics Orchard Training Center: 1995-1997 Study Period, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands: 49 p.
	
Jones, D. S. and C. F. Bagley (2001). Tracked Vehicle Impacts on Plant Community Characteristics at Orchard Training Center, Idaho 1995-1999: Update of 1995-1997 Report, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands: 56 p.
	
Jones, D. S. and T. Davo (1997). Land Condition-Trend Analysis Program Summary Fort Benning, Georgia: 1991-1995.  Supporting the Training Mission and Resource Sustainability, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Jones, D. S., D. G. Kowalski, et al. (1996). Calculating Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Estimates on Department of Defense Lands: A Review of RUSLE Factors and U.S. Army Land Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) Data Gaps. Fort Collins, CO, Center for Ecological Management of Military Lands: 9 p.
	The revised universal soil loss equation  is a revision and update of the widely used universal soil loss equation (USLE).  RUSLE retains the factors of the USLE to calculate annual sheet and rill erosion from a hillslope; however, changes have been made for each factor.  Each RUSLE factor is briefly described and examined in terms of required inputs to the model.  Inputs not currently collected as part of the army's Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program are identified.  the application of RUSLE using LCTA data from Yakima Training Center, Washington, resulted in a significant decrease in soil loss estimates compared to the USLE.  The development, implementation and support of standardized data collection methods is important if RUSLE is to be used to determine erosion status and trends at army installations.

Jones, D. S. and M. Kunze (2003). Initial Impacts and Recovery from Light Armored Vehicle (LAV III) Travel-Yakima Training Center.
	
Jones, D. S. and M. Kunze (2003). Land Condition-Trend Analysis (LCTA) Technical Report 1989-2002, Yakima Training Center, WA.
	
Jones, R., D. Horner, et al. (2005). "A methodology for quantitatively assessing vehicular rutting on terrains." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 245-257.
	This paper presents a quantitative method for assessing the environmental impact of terrain/vehicle interactions during tactical missions. Area wide mobility analyses were conducted using three standard US military tracked and wheeled vehicles over terrain regions representing both fine-grained and course-grained soils. The NATO reference mobility model, Version 2, was used to perform the on- and off-road mobility analysis. Vehicle and terrain characterizations along with different climate scenarios were used as input parameters to predict vehicle rut depth performance for the different vehicles and terrain conditions. The vehicles' performance was statistically mapped over these terrain regions for percent area traveled and the resulting rut depth created by each vehicle. A selection of tactical scenarios for each vehicle was used to determine rut depth for a range of vehicle missions. A vehicle mission severity rating method, developed at the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, was used to rate the selected missions and resulting rut depths. (c) 2005 ISTVS. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Jones, T. L., M. Montes-Helu, et al. (1996). Ecological studies on McGregor Range Hydrologic Studies Task: Final Report. Las Cruces, NM, New Mexico State University, Department of Agriculture and Home Economics.
	
Jordan, R. A. (1998). Species Profile: Pine Snake ( Pituophis melanoleucus spp.) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 28 p.
	This report addresses the four subspecies of pine snake (Pituophis melanoleucus) that occur east of the Mississippi River: Northern Pine Snake (P. m. melanoleucus), Florida pine snake (P. m. mugitus), Black Pine Snake (P. m. lodingi), and Louisiana Pine Snake (P. m. ruthveni). These subspecies typically inhabit areas of sandy soil dominated by scrub pines and shrubs, flat sandy pine barrens, sandhills, and dry mountain ridges. Pine snakes in the southeastern United States are former candidate species for listing as threatened or endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Louisiana subspecies is considered one of the rarest and least understood snakes in North America. Habitat loss and fragmentation appear to be the primary threats to the continued survival of pine snakes. Pine snakes have been documented on several military installations in the Southeast. This report is one of a series of Species Profiles being developed for threatened, endangered, and sensitive species inhabiting southeastern United States plant communities. The work is being conducted as part of the Department of Defense (DoD) Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The report is designed to supplement information provided in plant community management reports for major United States plant communities found on military installations. Information provided on pine snakes includes status, life history and ecology, habitat requirements, impacts and cause of decline, management and protection, and inventory and monitoring. 

Jordan, R. A. (1998). Species Profile: Southern Hognose Snake (Heterodon simus) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States. Washington, DC, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 19 p.
	The least tern is the smallest North American tern, with a body length of approximately 23 cm (9 in.) and a wingspread of 51 cm (20 in.) (National Geographic Society
1983). The sexes are similar in appearance. The breeding adult has a black crown and nape, white forehead, black-tipped bill, gray back and dorsal wing surfaces, and snowy
white underwing surfaces. In flight, the black wedge on the outer primaries and the short, deeply forked tail are conspicuous.  Immature birds have darker plumage than adults, black eye stripes, white foreheads, and dark bills (National Geographic Society 1983). The juvenile is pinkish-buff above with brownish U-shaped markings on the feathers; it has a dusky crown, black eye stripe, and dark shoulder bar on the wings. The first-summer bird is similar to the adult but retains the eye stripe and shoulder bar and has a dark bill and legs and dusky primaries.

Dorsal scales are keeled; the scales are in 25 rows anteriorly and at midbody and 21 rows posteriorly. The anal plate is divided. There are three or more azygous (unpaired) scales separating the two internasals on the dorsal side of the head behind the rostral scale (on the nose). Diagnostic head scalation includes a loreal, a complete ring of oculars, 3 to 4 + 4 to 5 temporals, 6 to 8 supralabials, and 9 to 12 infralabials. The 6 to 11 anterior maxillary teeth are separated from the two enlarged, ungrooved, posterior teeth by a diastema (large space between teeth) (Ernst and Barbour 1989).  Males have shorter bodies with 122 or fewer ventral scales (scales beginning with the first scute that makes full contact with the first row of dorsals and ending with the one that contacts the anal plate) and longer tails with up to 44 subcaudal scales (those on the ventral surface of the tail); females have 134 or fewer ventral scales and 35 or less subcaudal scales (Ernst and Barbour 1989). Coloration is not as variable as the eastern hognose snake (H. platyrhinos), in which the underside of the tail is lighter than the belly; H. platyrhinos also has a relatively straight rostral scale. The pygmy rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) has a tail rattle, a pit between the nostril and the eye, and a vertical pupil (Conant 1975, Ernst and Barbour 1989).

Jorgensen, E. E. and S. Demarais (1998). "Herpetofauna associated with arroyos and uplands in foothills of the Chihuahuan Desert." Southwestern Naturalist 43(4): 441-448.
	Arroyos form distinctive habitats in desert foothills. To document herpetofaunal habitat associations with arroyos we operated 16 drift fences (eight in arroyos, eight on uplands) for 4,152 drift fence nights during spring and fall, 1993-1994. Only Scaphiopus couchii demonstrated an association for arroyo habitat, and only during fall 1993. Cnemidophorus marmoratus and C. exsanquis demonstrated possible seasonal associations with uplands. Statistical tests are characterized by low power, apparently resulting from small observed differences in relative abundance between habitats. Small observed differences suggest that, with some exceptions, arroyos versus uplands is not a habitat contrast of relevance to herpetofauna. A posteriori canonical correspondence analysis was applied to produce an ordination of species with six structural habitat variables (shrub cover, grass and forb cover at two heights, amount of detritus, stones and rocks, and sand on the substrate). This comparison, although suggesting a tendency for herpetofauna to favor arroyos, failed to show a significant relationship between herpetofauna and environmental variables. This study suggests that environmental variables other than those directly related to vegetation will be important determinants of herpetofaunal habitat suitability. 

Jorgensen, E. E., S. Demarais, et al. (1995). "Rodent Use of Microhabitat Patches in Desert Arroyos." American Midland Naturalist 134(1): 193-199.
	We studied microhabitat use and movements of rodents in a desert arroyo. In arroyos, habitat patches can be identified in which microhabitat is distributed linearly. We recognized five types of patch: (1) wash zone, (2) N shoulder, (3) S shoulder (4) N terrace and (5) S terrace. Rodents were rarely captured in wash zones. They were captured on shoulders half as much as terraces. Dipodomys merriami preferentially moved parallel to arroyos. We confirmed past observations that cricetines tend to move farther than heteromyids. Exposed/open patches were avoided by all taxa in this rodent community; this may be a general pattern when patches are distributed continuously and consistently in space.

Jorgensen, E. E., S. Demarais, et al. (1998). "Modeling habitat suitability for small mammals in Chihuahuan Desert foothills of New Mexico." Journal of Wildlife Management 62(3): 989-996.
	Desert arroyos make up only 2-4% of the desert landscape but may be unique habitat for some wildlife species. Habitat suitability models for small mammals could indicate habitat condition in these uncommon areas and, through monitoring, provide a tool for arid lands wildlife management. During 1993 and 1994, we modeled habitat associations for 18 species of small mammals in 6 habitats associated with desert foothills in the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico. Habitat associations of small mammals remained relatively consistent through time, although community abundance decreased 34% from spring 1993 to fall 1994. These habitat associations allowed us to use discriminant analysis to model habitat associations based upon designation of habitat as capable of supporting "high," "moderate," or "low" relative abundance. The procedure successfully classified 80-93% of habitats as supporting "high," "moderate," or "low" abundance of 13 species of heteromyid and murid rodents. Murid rodents (Peromyscus, Reithrodontomys, Neotoma, Sigmodon) were found primarily within arroyos where shrub diversity, canopy cover, and height were greatest compared to surrounding habitats. The modeling approach described herein should be useful to managers because stochastic temporal change in the relative abundance of small mammals is effectively removed from consideration.

Jorgensen, E. E., S. Demarais, et al. (1994). "The effect of box-trap design on rodent captures." Southwestern Naturalist 39(3): 291-294.
	
Jorgenson, M. T., J. E. Roth, et al. (1999). Ecological Land Survey for Fort Wainwright, Alaska. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab: 92 p.
	An ecological land survey (ELS) of Fort Wainwright land was conducted to map ecosystems at three spatial scales to aid in the management of natural resources. In an ELS, an attempt is made to view landscapes not just as aggregations of separate biological and earth resources, but as ecological systems with functionally related parts that can provide a consistent conceptual framework for ecological applications. Field surveys at 109 sites along 11 toposequences, and at an additional 131 ground-reference locations, were used to identify relationships among physiography, geomorphology, hydrology, permafrost, and vegetation. The association among ecosystem components also revealed effects of fire and geomorphic processes, such as groundwater discharge, floodplain development, permafrost degradation, and paludification. Ecosystems were mapped at three spatial scales. Ecotypes (1:50,000 scale), delineated areas with homogenous topography, terrain, soil, surface-form, hydrology, and vegetation. Ecosections (1:100,000 scale) are homogeneous with respect to geomorphic features and water regime and, thus, have recurring patterns of soils and vegetation. Ecodistricts (1:500,000) are broader areas with similar geology, geomorphology, and physiography. Development of the spatial database within a geographic information system will facilitate numerous management objectives such as wetland protection, integrated-training-area management, permafrost protection, wildlife management, and recreational area management.

Jorgenson, M. T., J. E. Roth, et al. (2001). An Ecological Land Survey for Fort Greely, Alaska, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory: 89 p.
	An ecological land survey (ELS) of Fort Greely
land was conducted to map ecosystems at three spatial scales to aid in the management of natural resources. In an ELS, an attempt is made to view landscapes not just as aggregations of separate biological and earth resources, but as ecological systems with functionally related parts that can provide a consistent conceptual framework for ecological applications. Field surveys at
74 sites along 7 toposequences, and at an additional 178 ground-reference locations, were used to identify relationships among physiography, geomorphology, hydrology,
permafrost, and vegetation. The association
among ecosystem components also revealed effects of fire and geomorphic processes, such as groundwater discharge, floodplain development, permafrost degra-dation, and paludification. Ecosoystems were mapped at three spatial scales. Ecotypes (1:50,000 scale) delineated
areas with homogenous topography, terrain,
soil, surface-form, hydrology, and vegetation. Ecosections (1:100,000 scale) are homogeneous with respect to geomorphic features and water regime and, thus, have recurring patterns of soils and vegetation. Ecodistricts (1:500,000) are broader areas with similar geology, geomorphology, and physiography. Development
of the spatial database within a geographic
information system will facilitate numerous management objectives such as wetland protection, integratedtraining-area management, permafrost protection, wildlife management, and recreational area management.

Joselyn, G. B. (1965). "Wildlife management on military installations - a critique of Army policy." Journal of Wildlife Management 29: 215-223.
	With the Department of Defense  controlling increasingly larger segments of land in the United States, civilian conservation agencies have urged natural resource management on military lands.  Federal legislation and recent Defense Department policy statements provide a basis  for the individual military services to proceed with such wildlife-management programs.  Although the Air Force and Navy have taken positive action to insure adequate long-range wildlife-resource planning, the Army has yet to adopt a similary policy.  The Army has recognized the need for wildlife management from only the land-management standpoint and has largely ignored recreational values.  Nevertheless, basically sound programs have been developed  on a limited number of Army installations, as at Fort Riley, Kansas.  The success of the Fort Riley program is attributed to the fact hat the value of wildlife-resource management was demonstrated to, and consequently supported by, post authorities; in 1961, only 2 of 13 recreational activities on the installation were more popular than hunting and fishing.  Civilian conservation agencies have encouraged the Army to manage the wildlife on the land which it controls and to permit civilian participation in the removal of surplus fish and game.  But neither the Army nor civilian conservation agencies have given adequate consideration to the recreational value of fish and game resources on military lands for military personnel.  If this fact was recognized, greater progress would be assured in the future.  

Kade, A. and S. D. Warren (2002). "Soil and plant recovery after historic military disturbances in the Sonoran Desert, USA." Arid Land Research and Management 16(3): 231-243.
	Military training exercises in desert areas have resulted in various types of disturbance through time. Camp Laguna, located on the U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground in southwestern Arizona, served as a military base camp during World War II. The camp exhibits a variety of historic disturbances, including vehicle traffic (motor pool) and foot traffic (tent rows, commons, and footpaths). The extent of soil and plant recovery that has occurred at Camp Laguna in the 56 years since abandonment was assessed by comparing sites with historic disturbance to an apparently undisturbed control site. Vegetative recovery was determined by measuring perennial plant foliar cover and density. Soil was characterized by maximum penetration depth measurements and presence of biological soil crusts. Soil samples were collected and analyzed for inorganic and organic carbon and total nitrogen content. The tent city, disturbed primarily by foot traffic, did not show full recovery of vegetation and biological soil crust to predisturbance conditions. The slow recovery may be attributable to grading that removed topsoil and seed sources when the camp was established. In contrast, most plant species at the motor pool exhibited higher density and greater foliar cover than was found at the control site. This may be the result of a compacted soil layer that enhanced soil-water relations of the upper horizon of the sandy soil and provided fine plant roots with a greater amount of moisture.

Kalita, P., M. Hirschi, et al. (2000). "In the Trenches:  WEPP model measures runoff and erosion on military training lands." Resource 7(12): 13-14.
	
Kelson, A. R. and R. J. Lilieholm (1999). "Transboundary issues in wilderness management." Environmental Management 23(3): 297-305.
	The management of lands adjacent to federally designated wilderness is increasingly seen to have the potential to negatively impact wilderness resources and management objectives. This paper first examines the numerous and often conflicting laws and regulations that influence how managers can mitigate transboundary issues. We then examine the various types of transboundary issues, and describe how they impact wilderness resources. Transboundary issues include recreational use, extractive activities, fire management, exotic species introductions, aircraft overflights and military operations, water diversion. urban encroachment, and transported pollutants.

Kestler, M. A., S. A. Shoop, et al. (1999). Rapid Stabilization of Thawing Soils for Enhanced Vehicle Mobility. A field Demonstration Project. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab: 80 p.
	Thawing soil presents a formidable challenge for vehicle operations cross-country and on unsurfaced roads. To mitigate the problem, a variety of stabilization techniques were evaluated for their suitability for rapid employment to enhance military vehicle operations. A combination of mechanical stabilization methods including several lightweight fills, geosynthetics, and tire and wood mats, were constructed and tested during the annual training exercises of the 229th Engineers of the Wisconsin National Guard during the difficult conditions of spring thaw. The techniques were evaluated for their expediency, ease of construction, trafficability, and durability. In general, chunkwood was an excellent replacement for gravel fill in forested area; tree slash (or other vegetation) was effective but labor intensive; wood mats and pallets were effective and reasonably durable; tire mats were extremely rugged and effective. A loader or crane was needed to place the large wood mats, tire mats, and fascines. Geocomposite materials (Geonet) were quickly installed and could withstand limited traffic (50 passes) without additional cover material. Geosynthetics reduced the amount of cover material and enhanced placement, effectiveness and removal when used under other materials to spread the load and keep them from sinking into the mud. All materials were damaged during the severe motion of a tank cornering except the large, smooth wood mats, but these were slippery on slopes. Results are summarized in a decision matrix for choosing the best technique depending on site conditions, material and equipment availability, and utilization criteria.

Kindell, C. (1999). Elmendorf Air Force Base Ecological Monitoring Program. Tallahasee, FL, Florida Natural Areas Inventory  8 p.
	In January 1999, the Alaska Natural Heritage Program (AKNHP) undertook a project to establish and characterize long-term vegetation monitoring plots (LTVMPs) on Elmendorf Air Force Base (EAFB), Alaska, under Contract Agreement No. DAMD 17-99-2-9004. The purpose of the project is to provide information necessary to monitor long-term changes and update the EAFB Integrated Natural Resource Management Plan (INRMP) as directed in AH 327064 and 32 CFR 190.7, 16 USC5CSCIl67Oa (Sikes Act). These documents require military installations to develop new, integrated, natural resource plans and make substantive revisions at least every five years. The current EAFB vegetation inventory is 15 years old and does not reflect current vegetation conditions.

King, A. W., T. L. Ashwood, et al. (1999). Ecological Modeling and Simulation Using Error and Uncertainty Analysis Methods (Project CS-1097). Annual rept., Oak Ridge National Lab, TN: 22 p.
	The principle objective of this project is to identify and implement methods for the analysis of error and uncertainty of spatial data in spatially explicit ecological models. The development of these methods for spatial error and uncertainty analysis is done in coordination with Dr. George Gertner and SERDP Conservation Thrust Area Project SC-1096. Methods and tools developped and implemented by our project will be transferred to Project CS-1096 for incorporation within that project's error budget framework and toolbox. Our software tools will also be compatible with the specifications and requirements of DoD and SERDP land management tools and software like the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Land Management System (LMS) or others. We have completed the first phase of a survey of existing methods for the analysis of error and uncertainty analysis in spatial data. From this survey we have formulated a general framework for spatial error and uncertainty analysis of ecological models, and we have implemented software tools for treatment of error and uncertainty in categorical spatial data. We have begun the process of testing and refining these software tools.

Klein, S. C., J. Michaelson, et al. (2001). Identification and Characterization of Disturbed Alder Sites on Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. Final rept. 4 Jan 1999-27 Apr 2001. Anchorage AK, Alaska Natural Heritage Program, Environment and Natural Resources Institute, University of Alaska Anchorage: 121 p.
	Vegetation data were collected to identify and characterize disturbed alder (Alnus spp.) areas and provide an ArcView GIS layer for specific sites of alder encroachment likely due to human disturbance. Fifty-six plots were established and characterized from sites within previously mapped and delineated polygons on the EAFB vegetation map. Vegetation and physical site characteristics were described at each sample point. Physical site characteristics (e.g., moisture) were summarized and natural vs human-induced successional changes at each alder site were described. All sample plot locations and moisture and disturbance regimes were entered to an ArcView GIS. Alder plot data were investigated to ascertain a means of differentiating disturbed vs undisturbed alder sites in the field using floristic criteria. A multivariate data analysis program (SYN-TAX) was applied using ordination, k- means clustering and range of rows clustering. A stepwise procedure of successive approximations within SYN-TAX was used to further analyze or refine groupings of plots and species representative as they related to disturbed and undisturbed alder sites. The analysis suggested an inability to identify 'disturbed' vs 'undisturbed' alder sites based on their floristic composition. A more qualitative assessment of field work was presented, offering observations to assist Base land managers in their alder management decisions. An ArcView GIS Project was created containing the following theme layers: 1999 edited vegetation map of EAFB; alder plot locations; alder base map; wet alder; alder likely caused by human disturbance; and alder not likely caused by human disturbance. Metadata layers were provided for each of the latter five themes. The design of the GIS layers provides for a variety of queries to be made from each theme as well as using the themes in combination to assess site comparisons. These could prove useful for future separation of plots for management purposes.

Knick, S. T. and J. T. Rotenberry (1997). "Landscape characteristics of disturbed shrubsteppe habitats in southwestern Idaho (U.S.A.)." Landscape Ecology 12(5): 287-297.
	We compared 5 zones in shrubsteppe habitats of southwestern Idaho to determine the effect of differing disturbance combinations on landscapes that once shared historically similar disturbance regimes. The primary consequence of agriculture, wildfires, and extensive fires ignited by the military during training activities was loss of native shrubs from the landscape. Agriculture created large square blocks on the landscape, and the landscape contained fewer small patches and more large shrub patches than non-agricultural areas. In contrast, fires left a more fragmented landscape. Repeated fires did not change the distribution of patch sizes, but decreased the total area of remaining shrublands and increased the distance between remaining shrub patches that provide seed sources. Military training with tracked vehicles was associated with a landscape characterized by small, closely spaced, shrub patches. Our results support the general model hypothesized for conversion of shrublands to annual grasslands by disturbance. Larger shrub patches in our region, historically resistant to fire spread and large-scale fires because of a perennial bunchgrass understory, were more fragmented than small patches. Presence of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), an exotic annual, was positively related to landscape patchiness and negatively related to number of shrub cells. Thus, cheatgrass dominance can contribute to further fragmentation and loss of the shrub patch by facilitating spread of subsequent fires, carried by continuous fuels, through the patch. The synergistic processes of fragmentation of shrub patches by disturbance, invasion and subsequent dominance by exotic annuals, and fire are converting shrubsteppe in southwestern Idaho to a new state dominated by exotic annual grasslands and high fire frequencies.

Kochert, M., S. Knick, et al. (1996). Effects of Military Training and Fire in the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Boise, ID, U.S. Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Center, Snake River Field Station.
	The unique characteristics of the Snake River Canyon and the adjoining upland desert south of Boise, Idaho, have been recognized since the 1940s (Olendorff and Kochert 1977). An area associated with a 130-km stretch of canyon supports one of the highest densities of non-colonial nesting raptors in the world (U.S. Dep. Inter. 1979, Olendorff et al, 1989). This area also contains exceptionally high raptor biodiversity: 15 species of birds of prey nest in the canyon or surrounding upland areas, and another 10 species use the area during migration or winter. Because of these natural values and the perceived importance of this region to the conservation of populations of raptors, in 1971 the Secretary of the Interior designated approximately 10,800 ha of public land along a portion of this stretch of the Snake River as the Snake River Birds of Prey Natural Area. This Natural Area only encompassed approximately half of the unique assemblage of raptors and protected little of their foraging habitat (U.S. Dep. Inter. 1979). During the 1970s, research sponsored of the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) identified for many species the importance of foraging habitat on the benchlands north of the canyon (U.S. Dep. Inter. 1979). On the basis of this research, the Secretary designated 195,325 ha of public land as the Snake River Birds of Prey Area under Public Land Order 5777 in 1980. On August 4, 1993, Congress enacted Public Law 103-64 providing permanent protection to the area, now known as the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (NCA). This 196,225-ha area, now slightly larger following adjustments, was established "to provide for the conservation, protection, and enhancement of raptor populations and habitats and the natural and environmental resources and values associated therewith, and of the scientific, cultural, and educational resources and values of the public lands in the conservation area". When the NCA was established, the public land orders that established the 1971 Natural Area and the 1980 administrative withdrawal area were both revoked. Responsibility for managing the NCA rests with the BLM. Studies of the abundance, home range sizes, food habits, nesting distribution, and reproduction of raptors in the NCA have been conducted periodically for more than 25 years. In the mid-1960s, Hickman (1968) surveyed southeastern Oregon and southwestern Idaho, including the present NCA, for nesting golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, University of Idaho students studied golden eagles and prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) in the present NCA (Beecham 1970), KIochert 1972, Ogden 1973). In 1972, BLM initiated a raptor research project that, in 1975, became an integrated team project to investigate the ecology of raptors and their prey. The findings of this effort (U.S. Dep. Inter 1979) were the basis for protecting the area and helped to define its boundaries. During the 1980s, BLM research biologists worked cooperatively with industry biologists to evaluate the effects of electric power transmission lines and dam construction on raptors in the NCA. Interest in raptor ecology, research, and monitoring within the NCA has increased with the establishment of Boise State University's Raptor Research center, the Peregrine Fund's World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise, and the Raptor Research and Technical Assistance Center.

Kogovsek, J., M. Knez, et al. (1999). "Military training area in Kras (Slovenia)." Environmental Geology and Water Sciences 38(1): 69-76.
	Abstract Slovenia's main military training area at Po)ek is located in the mountainous Javorniki Watershed. This is a karstic district without surface drainage or river valleys. The typical landscapes are conical hills and plateaus with many dolines. The lithology, tectonic structure and speleological data indicate a typical karst aquifer with underground water moving rapidly through fissures and conduits. Little attenuation occurs in such conditions and as a result there is a high risk of pollution. Tracer tests have shown that a significant proportion of the water recharging the Malni and Vipava springs comes from the vicinity of the military training area. As a result any polluting activities taking place within the military training area are likely to affect the two springs. This is a very serious matter as the springs have been developed to provide the water supply for the population of south-western Slovenia.

Kogovšek, J. and M. Petric (2004). "Advantages of longer–term tracing -- three case studies from Slovenia." Environmental Geology 47(1): 76-83.
	A variety of human activities can negatively impact on sensitive karst environments, especially on karst water. To protect such water adequately it is necessary to obtain as much information as possible on the extent of the recharge zones and characteristics of the groundwater flow. The authors’ experience has shown tracer tests to be a very useful tool in acquiring such information. Three examples from Slovenia are presented in this paper. In the first, an estimate was made of the danger of water contamination resulting from a petrochemical storage depot. In the second, the possible impacts of an area used for military training were studied. In the third, the effects of the construction of a railway line on regionally important water resources were assessed. Besides basic information about the direction and velocity of groundwater flow, some methodological principles were also identified by the studies. In all three test areas sampling was carried out for a lengthy period and continued after the detection of the peak concentrations. The results show that only the use of such lengthy tracer tests enable the definition of those flow paths, which are activated in extreme hydrological conditions.

Kovacic, D. A., A. J. Krzysik, et al. (2003). Soil mineralization potential as an indicator of ecological disturbance. 88th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America held jointly with the International Society for Ecological Modeling - North American Chapter, Savannah, Georgia, USA, Ecological Society of American Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	
Kozma, J. and N. E. Mathews (1995). "Interspecific Cooperative Nesting Between Barn Swallows and Say's Phoebes in South-Central New Mexico." The Auk 112(2): 515-517.
	Describes an unusual type of nesting arrangement between two avian species observed at Fort Bliss, TX/NM.

Krausman, P. R. and L. K. Harris (2002). "Military jet activity and Sonoran pronghorn." European Journal of Wildlife Research 48(1): 140-147.
	Forty percent of the habitat for the endangered Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) in the United States is on the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR), a bombing and gunnery range located in southwestern Arizona, USA. Wildlife and land managers have expressed concerns that military aircraft activity may be detrimental to Sonoran pronhom. We observed the response of Sonoran pronghorn to military jet activity from 4 vantage points, BMGR from February 1998 to June 2000. We obtained behavioral observations on 172 days and obtained 44,773 observation events (i.e., 1 observation / 30 seconds). Pronghorn were exposed to 109 direct military overflights, but only 6 were <305 m above ground level. Overall, behavior of males and females was not significantly different and the presence of military aircraft did not cause changes in behavior.

Krausman, P. R., L. K. Harris, et al. (2004). "Effects of military operations on behavior and hearing of endangered Sonoran pronghorn." Wildlife Monographs(157): 1-41.
	Our objectives in this study were to determine whether military activities (e.g., overflight noise, noise from ordnance delivery, ground-based human activity) on the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR) affect the behavior and hearing of Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis). We contrasted the behavior of pronghorn on BMGR with the closest population of pronghorn in the United States that was not subjected to routine military activity (i.e., on the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge [BANWR], Arizona). Forty percent of the landscape used by the endangered Sonoran pronghorn in the United States is within the 5,739 km(2) BMGR, a bombing and gunnery facility in southwestern Arizona. The range of Sonoran pronghorn covers about 88% of BMGR. The 179 Sonoran pronghorn that lived in the United States in December 1992 declined to 99 by December 2000. The Sonoran pronghorn has been listed as endangered for >30 years, but population limiting factors are unknown. Because Sonoran pronghorn use BMGR, land and wildlife managers raised concerns about the potential effects of military activities on the population. Possible indirect effects of military activities on Sonoran pronghorn, aside from direct mortality or injury, from ordnance delivery, chaff, flares, live ammunition, aircraft mishaps, interference from ground vehicles and personnel, include alteration of behavior or physiology. We conducted the study on the North and South Tactical Ranges (NTAC and STAC), BMGR, from February 1998 to June 2000. Hearing exams were conducted in Camp Verde, Arizona, the University of Arizona, and on the East Tactical Range (ETAC), BMGR. Interactions between pronghorn and military activity were restricted to 4 observation points that provided viewing areas from which pronghorn and military activity could be observed from less than or equal to10 km. We systematically located pronghorn with spotting scopes and telemetry. When located, we described their behavior and military activity using scan sampling. We tested hearing using auditory brainstem responses (ABR). We could not test the hearing of Sonoran pronghorn because of their endangered status, so we contrasted hearing of pronghorn near Camp Verde, Arizona, and desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus eremicus) that were and were not exposed to sound pressure levels from military activity. We recorded behavior observations of Sonoran pronghorn on 172 days (44,375 observation events [i.e., 1 observation/30 second]) over 373 hours. These data were compared with 93 days of behavioral data (24,297 observation events) over 202 hours for pronghorn not regularly influenced by military aircraft. Overall, we did not detect behavioral differences (i.e., time spent bedding, standing, foraging, traveling) between males and females. Pronghorn exposed to military activity, and those that were not, bedded the same amount of time. Pronghorn at BMGR foraged less and stood and traveled more than pronghorn not exposed to military activity. These trends were the same with and without anthropogenic activity. Only 7.3% of behavioral events occurred with identifiable stimuli. Military overflights occurred 363 times (0.8%) and non-military overflights occurred 77 times (<0.2%). Pronghorn rarely responded to military aircraft, but often moved >10 m when ground stimuli were present. Ambient noise levels ranged up to 123.1 decibels (dB). The average sound pressure level on days with military activity was 65.3 dB compared to 35.0 dB without military activity. Because we obtained hearing tests from deer and pronghorn, we were able to develop an ungulate weighting filter on the noise generated from overflights of A-10 and F-16 aircraft. Desert ungulates do not hear sound pressure levels generated from these aircraft as well as humans do (i.e., 14-19 dB lower). The military activity we examined had only marginal influence on Sonoran pronghorn. Pronghorn used the ranges shared with the military throughout the year and behavioral patterns of pronghorn were similar with and without the presence of military stimuli. Furthermore, pronghorn behavior exposed to military activity was similar to behaviors of pronghorn not exposed to regular military activity. The auditory characteristics of pronghorn were similar for those that have and have not been exposed to military activity. The population of Sonoran pronghorn in the United States continues to decline and is in serious danger of extirpation. Clearly, additional work needs to be done, but military activity as measured herein is not a limiting factor.

Krausman, P. R., L. K. Harris, et al. (2005). "Sonoran pronghorn habitat use on landscapes disturbed by military activities." Wildlife Society Bulletin 33(1): 16-23.
	
Krausman, P. R., M. C. Wallace, et al. (1998). "Effects of jet aircraft on mountain sheep." Journal of Wildlife Management 62(4): 1246-1254.
	Military-designated air spaces have been established above national parks and monuments, wildlife refuges, wilderness areas, and Department of Defense lands. Each of these landscapes is managed differently, which has led to questions of compatibility between military aircraft and wildlife. We determined the influence of F-16 aircraft overflights on mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) from January 1990 to May 1992 in the Desert National Wildlife Refuge, Nevada. We constructed a 320-ha enclosure and calibrated the area for sound pressure levels (i.e., noise) created by F-16 aircraft flying along the ridgeline of the mountains in the enclosure, approximately 125 m above ground level. In May 1990, we placed 12 mountain sheep from the surrounding area in the enclosure and monitored their behavior and use of habitats for 1 year to ensure they were familiar with the area before they were subjected to aircraft overflights. The habitat use and activity of the sheep in the enclosure were similar to free-ranging conspecifics. In May 1991, we instrumented 5 mountain sheep with heart-rate monitors and added them to the enclosure. During May 1991 to May 1992, F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure 149 times during 3 1-month periods. We recorded heart rate and behavior of sheep 15 min preoverflight, during the overflight, and postoverflight. Heart rate increased above preflight levels in 21 of 149 overflights but returned to preflight levels within 120 sec. When F-16 aircraft flew over the enclosure, the noise levels created did not alter behavior or use of habitat, or increase heart rates to the detriment of the sheep in the enclosure.

Kroll, A. (2000). Comparative ecology and conservation of the genus Ashmunella (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Polygyridae) of white sands missile range (NM) and fort bliss (NM and TX). The American Malacological Society 2000 Annual Meeting, San Francisco CA (USA) 
	
Kroll, A. J. (2001). Habitat characteristics and conservation of the genus Ashmunella (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Polygyridae) of White Sands Missle Range (NM and TX) and Fort Bliss (TX), New Mexico State University.
	
Kroll, A. J. (2003). "Comments on the natural history of the Ashmunella (Gastropoda : Pulmonata : Polygyridae) of White Sands Missile Range (New Mexico, USA) and Fort Bliss (New Mexico and Texas, USA)." Veliger 46(1): 98-99.
	
Kroll, A. J., K. Boykin, et al. (2003). "Habitat characteristics of Ashmunella (Gastropoda : Pulmonata : Polygyridae) at White Sands Missile Range and Fort Bliss, New Mexico." Southwestern Naturalist 48(1): 14-22.
	We studied the habitat characteristics of 7 species of montane land snails in the genus Ashmunella in southern New Mexico from July 1999 to September 2000. We compared 9 numeric variables and 4 categorical variables by species. Geographic differences in microhabitat variables exist among these species; however, these differences tend to be obscured when comparing species, because some species are ecological generalists that occupy a wide range of habitat types. Although this study determined that different populations occupy ecologically distinct habitats in a broad range of environmental conditions, it remains unclear whether these factors influence the morphological characters on which past workers assigned species status. Management plans for the conservation of these species should take careful note of demonstrated habitat differences among and within the species.

Krzysik, A. J. (1994). Biodiversity and the threatened/endangered/sensitive species of Fort Irwin CA: The National Training Center Mission, training effects, and options for natural resources management and mitigation. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 118 p.
	Properly designed and implemented inventory, assessment, and monitoring programs are important components of environmental compliance for U. S. Army training installations. In earlier work, a statistically rigorous and quantitative assessment and monitoring program for arid and semiarid ecosystems was developed and initiated in the Mojave Desert. The program was implemented in March 1983 at Fort Irwin, CA, the Army's National Training Center (NTC), to monitor woody perennial vegetation and vertebrate populations. Data from that program, and ongoing work by the author, have produced analytical capabilities to quantitatively assess the effects of training activities on ecosystems at landscape scales. Such assessments are needed to determine environmental mitigation and management priorities, and future monitoring and research needs. This report describes the biological and geophysical characteristics and environment of Fort Irwin, describes the Army training mission at the NTC, and summarizes the effects of the military training mission at Fort Irwin on woody vegetation and the vertebrate fauna. A detailed assessment of the current status of threatened, endangered, and sensitive animals and plants is also given. Priorities for environmental management, mitigation, research, and monitoring at Fort Irwin-based on sound ecological principles and the author's cumulative research in the Mojave Desert ecosystem-are discussed. -BKA 

Krzysik, A. J. (1994). Desert Tortoise at Fort Irwin, California. A Federal Threatened Species. Final rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab 102 p.
	The U.S. Department of Defense has the legal responsibility for managing the natural resources on its training lands, and the Department of the Army has made a commitment to become exemplary in issues of environmental compliance. Properly designed and implemented inventory, assessment, and monitoring programs are important components of environmental compliance. In earlier work, a statistically rigorous and quantitative assessment and monitoring program for arid and semiarid ecosystems was developed. The program was implemented in 1983 at Fort Irwin, CA, to monitor perennial woody vegetation and vertebrate populations. Data from that program, and ongoing work by the author, have produced analytical capabilities to assess the effects on the Mojave Desert ecosystem of Army training activities at the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin. Such an assessment is needed to determine environmental mitigation and management priorities, as well as future monitoring and research needs. This report describes the geophysical characteristics and environment of Fort Irwin, describes the Army training mission at the NTC, and summarizes the effects of the military training mission at Fort Irwin on woody vegetation and vertebrate fauna. Priorities for environmental mitigation, management, research, and monitoring at NTC-based on the author's cumulative work in this area-are discussed.

Krzysik, A. J. (1994). Mohave Ground Squirrel at Fort Irwin, California. A State Threatened Species. Final rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab 40 p.
	Properly designed and implemented inventory, assessment, and monitoring programs are important components of environmental compliance for U.S. Army training installations. In earlier work, a statistically rigorous and quantitative assessment and monitoring program for arid and semiarid ecosystems was developed and initiated in the Mojave Desert. The program was implemented in March 1983 at Fort Irwin, CA, the Army's National Training Center (NTC), to monitor woody perennial vegetation and vertebrate populations. Data from that program, and ongoing work by the author, have produced analytical capabilities to quantitatively assess the effects of training activities on ecosystems at landscape scales. Such assessments are needed to determine environmental mitigation and management priorities, and future monitoring and research needs. This report discusses the ecology and biology of the Mohave Ground Squirrel-a State threatened species-summarizes the geophysical characteristics and environment of Fort Irwin, and describes the Army training mission at the NTC. Priorities are discussed for environmental management and mitigation, based on sound ecological principles and the author's cumulative research on the Mojave Desert ecosystem.

Krzysik, A. J. (2000). Quantitative and Landscape Approaches to Amphibian Conservation. Final rept. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 96 p.
	Natural resources and wildlife managers for Federal agency lands, including those dedicated to military training and testing missions, must make decisions at multiple scales and with implications that extend far beyond the local boundaries of the land the managers are responsible for. Although landscape management at the local level is still as important as ever, current perception for long-term ecological sustainability requires regional contexts and conservation efforts. This document contains three peer-reviewed chapters from Status and Conservation of Midwestern Amphibians, M. J. Lannoo, editor, published by the University of Iowa Press in 1998. These chapters provide quantitative guidance and landscape perspectives to military land managers. The first chapter describes a very fundamental approach to coarse-grained classification of ecosystems on a regional or continental basis and classifying taxa within the ecosystems. The second chapter provides guidance to novice and experienced field biologist for designing and implementing ecological assessment or monitoring programs, and identifies important principles and issues in experimental design, field data collection, data management, and statistical analysis. The third chapter provides an introduction to the complex and valuable technologies and applications of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), cartography, landscape ecology and its metrics, and spatial modeling.

Krzysik, A. J., D. A. Kovacic, et al. (2004). Ecological indicators for assessing and monitoring ecosystem conditions along a broad disturbance gradient in the Fall-Line Sandhills upland forests of Georgia. 89th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America - Lessons of Lewis and Clark: Ecological Exploration of Inhabited Landscapes, Portland, OR, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts 
	
Kuhns, H., J. Gillies, et al. (2005). "Spatial Variability of Unpaved Road Dust PM10 Emission Factors near El Paso, Texas." Air & Waste Management  Assocociation 55: 3-12.
	The testing re-entrained aerosol kinetic emissions from
roads technique is compared with distance-based emission
factors (EFs; g/VKT) measured downwind of a dirt
road by using towers instrumented with real-time meteorological
and particle sensors at multiple heights. The
emission potential (EP), defined as the EF divided by the
vehicle speed (m/sec), and weight index permits the intercomparison
of emissions from multiple roadways surveyed
by the TRAKER vehicle. A survey of 72 km of unpaved
roads on the Ft. Bliss Military Base near El Paso,
Texas, indicated that 60% of all measured EPs fell between
6.7 (g/VKT)/(m/sec) and 9.6 (g/VKT)/(m/sec). The EP measured
across the base was 
50% lower than those collected
in the vicinity of the instrumented towers. This
implies that EFs measured for other vehicles on the same
test section should be reduced by 50% to more accurately
represent EFs for the entire military base.
Using geographic information system-based soil
maps, the inferred EFs are related to differences in soil
types over the survey area. Variations among five different
soil types accounted for 10% of variation in EP. Individual
measurements using the testing re-entrained aerosol kinetic
emissions from roads technique did show larger
spatial variations in EP; however, these were not effectively
captured by the soil classifications, partly because of
the comparatively coarse spatial classification used in the
soil survey data.

Lacey, R. M. and W. D. Severinghaus (1981). Natural Resource Considerations for Tactical Vehicle Training Areas. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: 109 p.
	
Lamb, J. (1998). "Holding the Fort." Erosion Control 5(6): 100-105.
	
Lamontagne, C., J. Mahannah, et al. (2005). Strategy to Minimize Energetics Contamination at Military Testing/Training Ranges. Newton, MA, Focis Associates Inc.: 87 p.
	The ARDEC is sponsoring the GAT Program. One important goal under the GAT program umbrella is to minimize the impacts of energetics contamination on military ranges resulting from testing and training activities. By achieving this goal, the Army will be able to maintain and strengthen its testing/ training capability and achieve sustainable ranges. In turn, military readiness can be assured. This report presents the OAT Strategy and methodology developed to assist the Army in identifying and prioritizing actions necessary to achieve this goal. In addition, the demonstration of the methodology on a specific munition item is summarized.

Larkin, R. P., L. L. Pater, et al. (1996). Effects of military noise on wildlife. A literature review. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army): 111 p.
	Assessing and mitigating impacts of military training on threatened and endangered species (TES) is a high priority for the Army. Noise is one impact of concern that is not understood very well. This literature review looks at research on the effects on wildlife of noise associated with military training, especially vehicle noise, artillery, small arms and other blast noise, and helicopter noise. Physical (acoustic) and biological principles are briefly reviewed and traumatic, physiological, behavioral, and population-level effects are discussed. Direct physiological effects of noise on wildlife are difficult to measure and although the processes are technically successful, they do not indicate the individual's health or chances of survival. Behavioral effects that might decrease chances of surviving and reproducing include retreat from favorable habitat near noise sources and reduction of time spent feeding, with resulting energy depletion. The literature contains a preponderance of small, disconnected, anecdotal or correlational studies as opposed to coherent programs of controlled experiments. Future research should stress quantification of exposure of subjects to noise, experimental approaches such as broadcasting accurate recordings of sounds, and observer effects. 

Larson, S. L., A. J. Bednar, et al. (2005). "Characterization of a military training site containing 232Thorium." Chemosphere 59(7): 1015-1022.
	Understanding contaminant distribution is critical to selection and implementation of effective and affordable containment and remediation efforts. This article describes the characterization of soil containing thorium at a training site on Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, NM. The site has been used by the Defense Nuclear Weapons School since the early 1960’s to train personnel in emergency response to nuclear weapons accidents and for characterization and containment of radioactive contamination. The purpose of work reported herein is to describe the primary location and migration pattern of 232Thorium (232Th) and 232Th progeny (decay products) at the site. Soil containing thorium oxide (ThO2) was applied to the site for approximately 30years (early 1960–1990) and was used to simulate a plutonium release from a nuclear weapons accident. Data presented indicate that surface 232Th and 232Th progeny at approximately 5 times background levels are approaching test site boundaries. However, the data also indicate that vertical migration has not exceeded 0.9m because of the insoluble nature of ThO2. The major mechanisms of 232Th mobility appear to be surface migration mediated by precipitation runoff and wind-blown soil.

Lashlee, D., F. Briuer, et al. (2002). "Geomorphic mapping enhances cultural resource management at the US Army Yuma Proving Ground, Arizona, USA." Arid Land Research and Management 16(3): 213-229.
	Provisions of the National Historical Preservation Act of 1966, particularly Section 106 of that Act, require the Yuma Proving Ground (YPG) to conduct archaeological surveys and assess cultural resources to evaluate potential effects of planned military testing activities oil those cultural resources considered eligible or potentially eligible,for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places. Landscape reconstruction was performed using aerial photography and satellite image interpretations, ground verification including detailed soils geomorphology descriptions, and archaeological surveys. Geographic Information System overlay analyses were used to determine the preferential distribution of cultural resources in tire study area. A last majority of the 40 mapped cultural sites are located on Pleistocene age geomorphic surfaces. Few sites occurred on Holocene age surfaces. Spatial relationships between geomorphology and archaeology were supported by chi-square statistical tests, rejecting tire hypothesis that culture is evenly distributed across the landscape as a function of the size of geomorphic surfaces comprising it. Nintey-two percent of cultural resources designated eligible the National Register of Historic Places occur on Pleistocene age geomorphic surfaces. Results of this interdisciplinary study suggest that both differential preservation of geomorphic surfaces and human behavior act together to explain the spatial distribution of cultural resources at YPG.

Lathrop, E. W. (1983). The effect of vehicle use on desert vegetation. Environmental effects of off-road vehicles: Impacts and management in arid regions. e. Robert H. Webb and Howard G. Wilshire. New York, Springer-Verlag: 153-166.
	
Lathrop, E. W. (1983). Recovery of Perennial Vegetation in Military Maneuver Areas. Environmental effects of off-road vehicles : impacts and management in arid regions: 265-277.
	
Lauver, C. L. and W. H. Busby (2002). "Testing a GIS model of habitat suitability for a declining grassland bird." Environmental Management 30(1): 88-97.
	Demand for information that can be used to manage loggerhead shrikes has recently increased because of concern over declining populations and loss of open, non-forested habitat. A previously-developed habitat model was modified to predict shrike habitat quality on Fort Riley Military Reservation (FRMR) in Kansas. Shrike habitat suitability indices were calculated based on the amount of potential and usable foraging habitat, and the number of potential nesting sites within a specified area. Interpretation of high quality digital photographs was used to delineate land cover classes, hedgerows and tree counts. These data were entered into a geographic information system (GIS) as individual data sets. The shrike habitat model was then employed to produce a GIS database predicting low, moderate, and high quality shrike habitat throughout the Reservation. Model results indicated that 67% of the Reservation was suitable habitat for loggerhead shrikes. Although over 80% of FRMR was mapped as grassland, the presence of few to several isolated trees or hedgerows was identified as a key factor in modeling habitat suitability. The accuracy of the GIS model was 82% in predicting suitable (moderate and high quality) loggerhead shrike habitat using an independent set of 66 recent shrike observations. The number of potential nesting sites and percent cover of usable foraging habitat were significantly related to habitat suitability of the sites occupied by shrikes.

Laven, R. D., R. B. Shaw, et al. (1991). "Population-Structure of the Recently Rediscovered Hawaiian Shrub Tetramolopium-Arenarium (Asteraceae)." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 78(4): 1073-1080.
	A demographic monitoring study was initiated in the sole known population of Tetramolopium arenarium, a taxon that was considered extinct until recently rediscovered on the Pohakuloa Training Area, Island of Hawaii, Hawaii. Spatial distribution, size structures, fife history stage structure and reproductive output were determined for the population. This sole population is restricted to a 100 m by 300 m area along a mesic ridge system and is comprised of 134 individuals. Size class frequency distributions are bell-shaped with the population dominated by large individuals. In spite of large flower and seed production, interpretation of these distributions reveals that this species is either on the verge of extinction or that episodic establishment is necessary to ensure the long-term persistence of this rare taxon. In order to safeguard this species, we recommend that military operations and hunting activity be restricted and that the area be fenced to exclude feral animals.

Lawler, J.-P., A.-J. Magoun, et al. (2005). "Short-term impacts of military overflights on caribou during calving season." Journal of Wildlife Management 69(3): 1133-1146.
	The Fortymile Caribou Herd (FCH) is the most prominent caribou herd in interior Alaska. A large portion of the FCH calving and summer range lies beneath heavily used Military Operations Areas (MOA) that are important for flight training. We observed the behavior of Grant's cow caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) and their calves before, during, and immediately following low-level military jet overflights. We also monitored movements of radiocollared cow caribou and survival of their calves. We conducted fieldwork from mid May through early June 2002. We concluded that military jet overflights did not cause deaths of caribou calves if the FCH during the calving period nor result in increased movements of cow-calf pairs over the 24-hour period following exposure to overflights. Short-term responses to overflights were generally mild in comparison to caribou reactions to predators or perceived predators. Caribou responses to overflights were variable, but responses were generally greater as slant distances decreased and jet speeds increased. A-10 jets caused less reaction than F-15s and F-16s. Although we found that short-term reactions of caribou to jet overflights were mild, we advise against assuming there are no long-term effects on calving caribou from jet overflights.

Lawson, D. E. and B. E. Brockett (1993). Preliminary Assessment of Sedimentation and Erosion in Eagle River Flats, South-Central Alaska. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,  Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab: 23 p.
	The physical processes of sedimentation and erosion within the tidal mudflats and salt marshes of Eagle River Flats (ERF), an area used as an artillery impact range by the U.S. Army since 1945, must be understood to evaluate potential treatments of a high duck mortality resulting from ingestion of white phosphorus (WP) particles. The WP originates from smoke-producing devices detonated here. A preliminary assessment of erosion and sedimentation during May to September 1992 indicates that the physical system is complex and the intensity of these processes spatially variable. Deposition from suspension sedimentation generally varied with morphology and elevation, increasing inland from levees on the Eagle River (1 to 2 mm) across vegetated (3 to 6 mm) and unvegetated (5 to 12 mm) mudflats, and into ponds (10 to 19 mm) and salt marshes (10 mm). Resedimentation rates in ponds ranged from 8 to 16 mm. Recession rates of eroding gully headwalls were highly variable, ranging from negligible to over 3.9 m. White phosphorus particles may be in suspended transport through gullies during ebb. Further studies are necessary to better define annual sedimentation and erosion rates, with improved sampling techniques used at an expanded number of sites. Basic data on tidal inundation, sediment influx and efflux, and WP particle transport are required to develop appropriate treatment methods. Alaska, Estuary, Sedimentation, Cook Enlet, Fort Richardson, Subarctic, Erosion, Pollution, Tidal flat.

Lebedev, P. A. and N. G. Sidorov (1965). "An Investigation into the Interaction of a Tracklaying Vehicle and the Ground During a Turn." Journal of Terramechanics 2(4): 9-15.
	The paper describes in a very brief manner the main points of an analysis of the forces and powers required to steer a tracklaying vehicle. The theory attempts to take the possible variables involved including for example the rotational inertia of the vehicle about a vertical axis and of the rotating track parts about horizontal axes, and the effects of drawbar and centrifugal forces. The theory is applied, apparently in a much simplified form, to a particular tractor and the results confirmed by experiment. The results show that the torque required to slow the tracks decreases rapidly as the radius of turn increases. 

Leedy, C. R., P. T. Tueller, et al. (2004). Identification and Mapping of Sagebrush/Grass Successional Stages with Landsat Thematic Mapper Data at Yakima Training Center, Washington. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army), Engineer Research and Development Center: 62 p.
	In the future, remote sensing technologies will become an increasingly important and valuable tool for military land managers in semiarid regions. These technologies, when combined with field samples, have the potential to accurately monitor rangeland trends from year to year with smaller monetary investments compared to field sampling exclusively. This research attempted to identify and map successional changes on semiarid rangelands at Yakima Training Center, WA, using remote sensing techniques by developing a model derived from analysis of dependent and independent variables chosen from field surveys of vegetation and geomorphic data, along with the interpretation of Landsat TM data. Preliminary results based on small data sets separated by elevation and slope direction showed both low and some reasonable R2 values, including some R2 near 0.70. The removal of elevation and slope direction and consideration of multicollinearity and outliers and influentials provided generally significant relationships among dependent and independent variables. Significant relationships between multiple dependent and independent variables were also identified using canonical correlation analysis. Variability among the releves, collection of field vegetation and soil data over the entire summer including many phenophases, and the correction of the raster radiance values for topography were assumed to be factors that may have reduced the predictive capabilities of the techniques investigated.

Lehman, R. N., K. Steenhof, et al. (1999). "Effects of military training activities on shrub-steppe raptors in southwestern Idaho, USA." Environmental Management 23(3): 409-417.
	Between 1991 and 1994, we assessed relative abundance, nesting success, and distribution oi ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus), burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia), and short-eared owls (Asio flammeus) inside and outside a military training site in the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area, southwestern Idaho. The Orchard Training Area is used primarily for armored vehicle training and artillery firing by the Idaho Army National Guard. Relative abundance of nesting pairs inside and outside the training site was not significantly different from 1991 to 1993 but was significantly higher on the training site in 1994 (P less than or equal to 0.03). Nesting success varied among years but was not significantly different inside and outside the training site (P > 0.26). In 1994, short-eared owl and burrowing owl nests were significantly closer to firing ranges used early in the spring before owls laid eggs than were random points (P < 0.001). In 1993, distances from occupied burrowing owl nests to firing ranges used early in the year were similar to those from random points to the same firing ranges (P = 0.16). Military activity contributed to some nesting failures from 1992 to 1994, but some pairs nested successfully near military activity.

Leininger, W. C. and G. F. Payne (1978-1979). The Effects of Off-Road Vehicle Travel on Rangeland in Southeastern Montana, Montana Agricultural Experiment Station, Montana State University: 46 p.
	
Leis, S. A., D. M. Engle, et al. (2005). "Effects of short- and long-term disturbance resulting from military maneuvers on vegetation and soils in a mixed prairie area." Environmental Management 36(6): 849-861.
	Loss of grassland species resulting from activities such as off-road vehicle use increases the need for models that predict effects of anthropogenic disturbance. The relationship of disturbance by military training to plant species richness and composition on two soils (Foard and Lawton) in a mixed prairie area was investigated. Track cover (cover of vehicle disturbance to the soil) and soil organic carbon were selected as measures of short- and long-term disturbance, respectively. Soil and vegetation data, collected in 1-m(2) quadrats, were analyzed at three spatial scales (60, 10, and 1 m(2)). Plant species richness peaked at intermediate levels of soil organic carbon at the 10-m(2) and 1-m(2) spatial scales on both the Lawton and Foard soils, and at intermediate levels of track cover at all three spatial scales on the Foard soil. Species composition differed across the disturbance gradient on the Foard soil but not on the Lawton soil. Disturbance increased total plant species richness on the Foard soil. The authors conclude that disturbance up to intermediate levels can be used to maintain biodiversity by enriching the plant species pool.

Leis, S. A., D. M. Engle, et al. (2003). "Comparison of vegetation sampling procedures in a disturbed mixed-grass prairie." Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science 83: 7-15.
	A fundamental principle of landscape ecology is that overall resolution of a study can be changed by varying the grain and extent of sampling. However, sampling methods yielding a desirable resolution may not be the most efficient in terms of data gathered per unit of effort. We tested three methods simultaneously to select the optimum sampling method and resolution for a vegetation survey at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. The military's standard sampling method, the Land Condition Trend Analysis Program, uses a modified point-intercept method to inventory vegetation. The point-intercept method may not adequately assess effects of disturbance on species richness in grasslands, so we tested it against contiguous quadrats and modified Whittaker plots. The point-intercept method, low resolution, was completed in the shortest time; however, it produced the least species richness. Contiguous quadrats, high resolution, required the greatest time investment, but had the highest species richness. Species richness in modified Whittaker plots (four levels of resolution) produced data quality similar to contiguous quadrats, but in less time. Modified Whittaker plots were most efficient because they detected the greatest number of species per unit of sampling effort and provided data at different spatial scales. (C) 2003 Oklahoma Academy of Science.

Leslie, M., G. K. Meffe, et al. (1996). Conserving biodiversity on military lands: a handbook for natural resources managers. Arlington, VA, The Nature Conservancy.
	
Levin, N. and E. Ben-Dor (2004). "Monitoring sand dune stabilization along the coastal dunes of Ashdod-Nizanim, Israel, 1945-1999." Journal of Arid Environments 58(3): 335-355.
	Temporal changes in the stabilization process along the coastal dunes of Israel were assessed using a series of 23 aerial photographs taken over the period 1944-1999. The stabilization rate was then quantified using a specially developed method for the calculation of sand dune movement and by the calibration of the gray-scale images into vegetation cover maps. An episodic reactivation of the dunes during the 1970s was identified and examined with respect to various physical and human factors. The Mediterranean climate along the coast of Israel and the low wind energy are favorable for the stabilization of sand dunes in the absence of human activity. It was shown that military maneuvers and recreational traffic (pedestrians and off-road vehicles) increased fragmentation but did not lead to the reactivation of the dunes. Based on archival records and interviews with officials who have worked in the area over the past 25 years, it was concluded that the apparent changes in the stabilization process should be attributed to changes in the grazing and vegetation cutting practices of Bedouin farmers along the coast of Israel between the late 1960s and the late 1970s, concomitant with the changing policies of successive Israeli governments. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Li, Z., K. A. Majerus, et al. (1999). Integrated dynamic landscape analysis and modeling system (IDLAMS): programmer's manual, Argonne National Lab, IL: 48 p.
	The Integrated Dynamic Landscape Analysis and Modeling System (IDLAMS) is a prototype, integrated land management technology developed through a joint effort between Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) and the US Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USACERL). Dr. Ronald C. Sundell, Ms. Pamela J. Sydelko, and Ms. Kimberly A. Majerus were the principal investigators (PIs) for this project. Dr. Zhian Li was the primary software developer. Dr. Jeffrey M. Keisler, Mr. Christopher M. Klaus, and Mr. Michael C. Vogt developed the decision analysis component of this project. It was developed with funding support from the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), a land/environmental stewardship research program with participation from the US Department of Defense (DoD), the US Department of Energy (DOE), and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). IDLAMS predicts land conditions (e.g., vegetation, wildlife habitats, and erosion status) by simulating changes in military land ecosystems for given training intensities and land management practices. It can be used by military land managers to help predict the future ecological condition for a given land use based on land management scenarios of various levels of training intensity. It also can be used as a tool to help land managers compare different land management practices and further determine a set of land management activities and prescriptions that best suit the needs of a specific military installation.

Lichvar, R., C. Racine, et al. (1997). A floristic inventory of vascular and cryptogam plant species at Fort Richardson, Alaska. Vicksburg, MS, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 155 p.
	
Lillie, T. H. and J. D. Ripley (1998). "A strategy for implementing ecosystem management in the United States Air Force." Natural Areas Journal 18(1): 73-80.
	The U.S. Air Force is entrusted with stewardship of a diversity of natural resources on installations throughout the United States. For many years these resources were managed with a commodities-based approach emphasizing multiple use, sustained yield, and the protection of single species regulated under the Endangered Species Act. Beginning in 1992, Air Force policymakers and field personnel recognized a need to adopt a new management policy. An ecosystem-based approach was adopted as a process for making, implementing, and evaluating decisions affecting the management of natural resources. This approach was implemented with a new policy directive, changes in funding priorities, and a new training course. We believe the ecosystem approach will better support the military mission and ensure the sustainability of natural resources on U.S. Air Force installations.

Lipkin, R. (2001). Floristic Inventory of Vascular Plant Species on Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. Final rept. 4 Jan 1999-27 Apr 2001. Anchorage, AK, Alaska Univ., Anchorage Inst. of Environment and Natural Resources: 24 p.
	In conjunction with a project to establish long-term vegetation monitoring plots, we conducted a survey of the vascular flora of Elmendorf Air Force Base. The main objectives of the survey were to: identify any rare vascular plants on Elmendorf Air Force Base; document additions to the flora of Elmendorf Air Force Base; insure that the vascular flora of the monitoring plots is accurately documented. We documented 301 vascular plant taxa for Elmendorf Air Force Base of which 99 were new to the base and one species was new to South central Alaska. Five rare vascular plant species (Alaska Natural Heritage Program rank S1-S3) were found.

Littleton, I. and J. G. Hetherington (1984). Modification of Soil Strength Characteristics Due to the Presence of Vegetation. Shrivenham (England), Royal Military Coll. of Science: 7 p.
	Although there has been considerable effort devoted to the study of soil vehicle interaction and soil working processes, very little attention has been paid to the effect of vegetation on these processes. Greater attention is being given to the reinforcement of soils using geotextiles, and the use of polymer based structural matting to provide temporary refurbishment to weakened soils for vehicle passage over strategically important areas. It is now pertinent therefore to examine the contribution made by fibrous material to soil strength and the possibility of enhancing the strength of soils by the addition of artificial fibres. Clearly the traction that a vehicle is able to mobilise from a soil is determined by certain vehicle parameters (e.g. weight, contact area, tyre tread or track configuration) and certain soil properties. Equally the sinkage and rolling resistance of a vehicle is governed by vehicle characteristics (e.g. wheel size, track size, and weight) and certain soil properties. In each case the dominant soil characteristic which affects traction, sinkage and and rolling resistance is shear strength. A high shear strength will enhance traction and reduce resistance giving rise to a higher draw-bar pull and generally better cross-country mobility. Similarly, the greater the shear strength of soil, the greater will be the forces acting on earth working implements and the energy dissipated during working.

Lockaby, B. G., R. Governo, et al. (2005). "Effects of sedimentation on soil nutrient dynamics in riparian forests." Journal of Environmental Quality 34(1): 390-396.
	The influence of sedimentation rates on biogeochemistry of riparian forests was studied near ephemeral streams at Fort Benning, GA. Upper reaches of seven ephemeral streams had received varying rates of sedimentation stemming from erosion along unpaved roadways at the military installation. Two reference catchments were also included in the study. Decomposition of foliar litter, microbial C and N, N mineralization, and arthropod populations were compared within and among catchments. Rates of sedimentation over the past 25 yr ranged from 0 in references to 4.0 cm yr–1. Decomposition rates declined exponentially with sedimentation rates as low as 0.20 to 0.32 cm yr–1 and appeared to reach an equilibrium at a sedimentation rate of 0.5 cm yr–1. Nitrogen mineralization and microbial C and N followed the same trend. Sedimentation had no discernible effect on arthropod populations. These data suggest that biogeochemical cycles may be altered by sedimentation rates that commonly occur in some floodplain forests. 

Lomolino, M. V. and J. C. Creighton (1996). "Habitat selection, breeding success and conservation of the endangered American burying beetle Nicrophorus americanus." Biological Conservation 77(2-3): 235-241.
	We tested the hypothesis that the decline of the endangered American burying beetle Nicrophorus americanus resulted primarily from its relatively large. size and its specialized breeding requirements (vertebrate carcasses which, after burial, ave used to nourish their young). Because it is the largest member of the burying beetle guild, N. americanus requires larger carcasses for breeding (optimal carcass mass is between 100 and 300 g). In comparison to smaller carcasses, larger carcasses are move rare and more difficult to bury. Therefore, while N. americanus may feed in many habitats, its optimal breeding habitats may be limited to those with a substantial litter layer and relatively deep, loose soils. Given this, Anderson (1982 Coleopt. Bull., 36) hypothesized that the decline of N. americanus resulted from deforestation in North America. The results of our regional- and local-scale field studies, and manipulative field experiments, support Anderson's hypothesis. At a regional scale (i.e. across its range in Oklahoma), distributions of N. americanus populations weve biased toward forested sites with relatively deep soils (p < 0.001). At a local scale, individual N. americanus exhibited a strong and highly significant (p < 0.001) preference for mature forests over clearcuts. Finally, our breeding experiment with pairs of N. americanus placed on carcasses in either grassland or forested habitats indicated that breeding success of this species was substantially and significantly (p < 0.05) higher in forested ecosystems. (C) 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd

Lovich, J. E. and D. Bainbridge (1999). "Anthropogenic degradation of the southern California desert ecosystem and prospects for natural recovery and restoration." Environmental Management 24(3): 309-326.
	Large areas of the southern California desert ecosystem have been negatively affected by off-highway vehicle use. overgrazing by domestic livestock, agriculture, urbanization, construction of roads and utility corridors, air pollution, military training. exercises, and other activities. Secondary contributions to degradation include the proliferation of exotic plant species and a higher frequency of anthropogenic fire. Effects of these impacts include alteration or destruction of macro- and micro-vegetation elements, establishment of annual plant communities dominated by exotic species, destruction of soil stabilizers, soil compaction, and increased erosion. Published estimates of recovery time are based on return to predisturbance levels of biomass, cover, density. community structure, or soil characteristics. Natural recovery rates depend on the nature and severity of the impact but are generally very slow Recovery to predisturbance plant cover and biomass may take 50-300 years, while complete ecosystem recovery may require over 3000 years. Restorative intervention can be used to enhance the success and rate of recovery, but the costs are high and the probability for long-term success is low to moderate. Given the sensitivity of desert habitats to disturbance and the slow rate of natural recovery, the best management option is to limit the:extent and intensity of impacts as much as possible.

Lozar, R. D. and D. J. Smead (1983). Data Availability to Support a Standardized Military Geographical Information System Database. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 29 p.
	Military installations own or administer large areas of land in many different regions which are used for training. These lands require competent resource management. Good resource management requires a knowledge of geographical information, and personnel must have access to this information to make effective management decisions. Computers have made display, update, and manipulation of this type of information easy and economical. The way this information is classified is critical to its consistency, clarity, ease of use, and high information value. However, such data must first be available. This study investigated a proposed standard classification scheme for computer storage and manipulation of geographical information and tested whether the proposed scheme could actually be supported by available data. The test, conducted at three National Guard installations, indicated that the scheme worked will, but that data availability depended on the data type and the test location.

Luken, J. O. and T. N. Bezold (2000). "Plant communities associated with different shoreline elements at Cave Run Lake, Kentucky." Wetlands 20(3): 479-486.
	The purpose of this research was to determine if slope and exposure are important determinants of plant communities emerging on reservoir shorelines. We sampled 30 sites on the previously inundated shoreline of Cave Run Lake, a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers flood-control reservoir in east-central Kentucky, USA. These sites were categorized as either flats, riparian forests, exposed banks, or sheltered banks. Two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) and detrended correspondence analysis were used with presence/absence data to group sites of similar community composition. There were 167 species of plants identified in the study plots, of which 29% were annuals, 2% were biennials, 69% were perennials, 11% were non-indigenous, and 63% met the criterion for inclusion in community analysis. A distinct assemblage of plant species was associated with all riparian forests, with six of eight flats, and with five of twelve exposed banks. Six sheltered banks were not obviously associated with a single community type. The TWINSPAN group including riparian forests had the highest percentage of wetland species; the TWINSPAN group including most flats had the highest species richness; the TWINSPAN group comprised entirely of exposed banks had low species richness and low representation of wetland species. Our results suggest that plant communities of high conservation value can emerge on relatively flat sites under a human-controlled flooding regimen as long as the soil remains intact. However, steep exposed banks are susceptible to soil loss, and the resulting rock substrates support a depauperate flora of low conservation value.

MacAllister, B. and M. G. Harper (1998). Management of Florida Scrub for Threatened and Endangered Species. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratories: 95 p.
	 Florida Scrub on military installations supports a number of land uses including the Department of Defense (DoD) training and testing mission and threatened, endangered, and sensitive species (TES) conservation. This report documents strategies to manage TES and their habitat on a plant community basis, using methods that apply to multiple species occurring in scrub within the state of Florida. This report provides ecological descriptions of the community, along with available information about community occurrence on DoD installations in Florida. Known occurrences of plant and animal TES are also included. Known and potential impacts to the integrity of the community as TES habitat and to associated species are reported. Impacts are related to habitat fragmentation, and changes in community composition, structure and function due altered fire regime, hydrologic patterns, groundcover integrity or the invasion of exotic species. Management recommendations are made within as ecosystem based, adaptive management context.

MacKay, W. P. and J. Herrick (1996). The impact of wheeled vehicle maneuvering on the flora and fauna of the chihuahuan desert: second report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. El Paso, University of Texas.
	
MacKay, W. P., J. Oliver, et al. (1996). The impact of wheeled vehicle maneuvering on the flora and fauna of the chihuahuan desert: fourth report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. El Paso, University of Texas.
	
MacKay, W. P., S. Watts, et al. (1997). The impact of wheeled vehicle maneuvering on the flora and fauna of the chihuahuan desert: seventh report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. El Paso, TX, University of Texas.
	
Maenius-Mosley, C. (1988). Estimates of allowable training levels on Fort Carson, Colorado. Fort Collins, Colorado State University.
	
Magoun, A. J., J. P. Lawler, et al. (2003). Short-Term Impacts of Military Jet Overflights on the Fortymile Caribou Herd during the Calving Season., Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, Juneau, National Park Service, Washington, DC,  Air Control Wing/Civil Engineering Operations Squadron (11th), Elmendorf AFB, Alaska: 82 p.
	The Fortymile caribou herd (FCH) is one of Interior Alaska's most prominent caribou herds. Although the herd presently numbers about 40,000, this estimate is still well below the historically high estimate of over 500,000 caribou made in the 1920s. In 2002 the FCH still occupied less than half of the range it covered during the high population years of the 1920s. In recent years the FCH has been in the news because of Alaska Department of Fish and Game's efforts to increase herd survival and growth in an attempt return the herd to a larger portion of its historical distribution. The National Park Service has an interest in this herd not only for its intrinsic value but also because it is an important component of the Yukon Charley Rivers National Preserve ecosystem. The US Air Force also has an interest in the FCH because a large portion of its calving and summer range lies beneath heavily used Military Operations Areas (MOA) that are important for flight training.

Maier, J. A. K., S. M. Murphy, et al. (1998). "Responses of caribou to overflights by low-altitude jet aircraft." Journal of Wildlife Management 62(2): 752-766.
	Military training exercises have increased in Alaska in recent years, and the possible effects of low-altitude overflights on wildlife such as barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) have caused concern among northern residents and resource agencies. We evaluated the effects of overflights by low-altitude, subsonic jet aircraft by U.S. Air Force (USAF) A-10, F-15, and F-16 jets on daily activity and movements of free-ranging female caribou. This study was conducted on caribou of the Delta Caribou Herd in interior Alaska during each of 3 seasons in 1991: late winter, postcalving, and insect harassment. Noise levels experienced by caribou were measured with Animal Noise Monitors (ANMs) attached to radiocollars. Caribou subjected to overflights in late winter interrupted resting bouts and consequently engaged in a greater number of resting bouts than caribou not subjected to overflights (P = 0.05). Caribou subjected to overflights during postcalving were more active (P = 0.03) and moved farther (P = 0.01) than did caribou not subjected to overflights. Caribou subjected to overflights during the insect season responded by becoming more active (P = 0.01). Responses of caribou to aircraft were mild in late winter, intermediate in the insect season, and strongest during postcalving. We conclude that females with young exhibit the most sensitive response to aircraft disturbance. Accordingly, military training exercises should be curtailed in areas where caribou are concentrated during calving and postcalving.

Maloney, K. O. (2004). The influence of catchment-scale disturbance on low-order streams at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, Auburn University: 209 p.
	The influence of catchment-scale disturbance from military training maneuvers was assessed in 12 streams within the Fort Benning Military Installation, Georgia, USA. Contemporary military training resulted in increased erosion potential and associated sedimentation of stream channels.

A comparison of 3 methods (instability index based on shear stress and bed particle size and 2 measures of bedload movement, erosion pins and cross-stream transects) to quantify streambed stability was conducted to assess method efficacy. Bedload movement estimates over the entire 8-mo period (Jan. to Sept. 2003), as well as length of sampling interval (2, 4, 6, or 8 mo), revealed that absolute measures of a cross-stream transect method was the best estimate of streambed stability.

Another study examined the relationships between catchment disturbance and stream physical and organic matter variables. Stream flashiness (response to precipitation event) positively related to storm magnitude and % catchment with sandy soils, whereas streambed stability related to % of catchment with nonforested land. Instream coarse woody debris, benthic organic matter, and streamwater dissolved organic carbon all negatively related to catchment disturbance.

Irrespective of season, a multitude of macroinvertebrate richness measures were all negatively correlated with catchment disturbance. Other than the number and % of macroinvertebrates that cling to habitat, no composition or feeding group measure was related to catchment disturbance. Regional multimetric indices, the Florida Stream Condition Index (FLSCI) and the Georgia Stream Condition Index (GASCI) were both consistently negatively related to catchment disturbance.

Fish were sampled seasonally in 8 streams in 2003. Assemblage measures (richness, diversity, and number collected) were negatively related to catchment disturbance only in the spring but not summer and winter, whereas relative abundance of the 2 most abundant populations consistently showed opposite associations with disturbance, Pteronotropis euryzonus (negative) and Semotilus thoreauianus (positive).

Contemporary land use (1999) better predicted stream physicochemistry and short-lived, high turnover biota (e.g., periphyton, chironomids), whereas historic land use (1944) was more related to streambed stability and longer-lived, low turnover biota (non-chironomid macroinvertebrates and fish). Results suggest rapid recovery of catchment to disturbance and a possible increasing magnitude of legacy effects with increasing organism longevity and time to maturity of taxa in the stream community.

Mann, L. K., A. W. King, et al. (1999). "The role of soil classification in geographic information system modeling of habitat pattern: Threatened calcareous ecosystems." Ecosystems 2(6): 524-538.
	Maps of potential habitat distribution are needed for regional population models of rare species, but reliable information from ground surveys is not always available. Existing data sources from disciplines other than ecological research often are underused. In this article, we discuss the development of a geographic information system (GIS) model that predicts potential habitats from ecosystem information contained in the US soil classification and soil survey. Soil classification and survey were used in the GIS model in an earlier study on the US Department of Energy's Oak Ridge Reservation, Tennessee, to predict threatened calcareous habitats. The model predicts potential habitats from the combination of (a) soil taxon as an indication of long-term ecosystem processes; (b) geologic parent material; and (c) slope class. Satellite imagery was added to indicate current successional state. In this study, we rested the model's predictive ability by using data from the Cedar Creek Slope Glades Preserve at the 44,000-ha US Department of Defense Fort Knox Military Reservation, Kentucky. We then used the model to predict occurrences of potential suitable habitat on the remainder of the Fort Knox reservation, including heavily impacted ordnance and tank training areas that are unsafe for public access; The soil component of the model also was applied to a 1.2 x 10(6)-km(2) region of the US, by using the US Department of Agriculture-National Resources Conservation Service (USDA-NRCS) State Soil Geographic Database (STATSGO) combined with official soil series descriptions. Soil taxa from the USDA-NRCS Soil Taxonomy were demonstrated to be associated with threatened calcareous habitats of rare plant species. These soil taxa were lithic mollisols (rendolls and udolls; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) rendzinas and chernozems) and alfisols (udalfs; FAO luvisols). The combined soil/geology/slope GIS approach has potential for prediction of rare ecosystems with narrow edaphic constraints. The approach would be useful in long-term planning for conservation management and restoration, especially where intensive ground surveys are expensive and/or impractical and where disturbance history obscures patterns of historical distribution.

Martin, C. O., M. G. Harper, et al. (2001). A Community-Based Regional Plan for Managing Threatened and Endangered Species on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States. Vicksburg, MS, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center: 125 p.
	The conservation and management of threatened and endangered species (TES) and their habitats are major issues on Department of Defense (DoD) installations throughout the United States. The development of TES management plans and implementation of management practices have traditionally been conducted on a species-by-species basis. However, within DoD there has been a recent shift toward ecosystem-based management, and emphasis is being placed on managing lands for multiple species rather than single species of interest. This study represents an attempt to develop a regionalized, community-based approach to TES management that is compatible with the military mission and ecosystem- based management guidelines. The southeastern United States was selected for development of a prototype plan because the region contains a large number of installations, many of which manage their resources for a variety of sensitive species. This report represents a synthesis of information provided in detail in Plant Community Management Plans, Faunal Species Profiles, and other documents prepared for the study. These documents should be used collectively to identify and understand the characteristics, quality indicators, functions, land uses, and potential impacts associated with communities that support a diversity of TES in the Southeast. Topics summarized in this report, include characterization of selected plant communities, discussion of TES components, and management considerations (e.g., forestry practices, fire management, land-use conversion, hydrology management, erosion and sedimentation control, wildlife management, and control of nuisance species). It is hoped that this information will provide the basis for preparation of installation TES community management plans in the Southeast, and that it will serve as a template for TES management programs in other regions.

Martin-Bashore, T. E., C. L. King, et al. (1996). An annotated bibliography and natural history database of the amphibians and reptiles of Fort Bliss, Texas, Department of the Army, Headquarters, U.S. Army Defense Artillery Center and Fort Bliss: 547 p.
	Results of a literature survey for reptiles and amphibians potentially occurring on or within 80 km of Fort Bliss, El Paso, Texas was conducted from 5 February, 1996 to 3 May, 1996. It is expected that the information gathered by this literature review will be utilized when making management decisions for these species.

Marzluff, J. M., et.al. (1992). Influence of Military Training on the Behavior of Raptors in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area.
	
Marzluff, J. M., S. T. Knick, et al. (1997). "Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in Southwestern Idaho." Auk 114(4): 673-687.
	We measured spatial use and habitat selection of radio-tagged Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) at eight to nine territories each year from 1992 to 1994 in the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area. Use of space did not vary between years or sexes, but did vary among seasons (home ranges and travel distances were larger during the nonbreeding than during the breeding season) and among individuals. Home ranges were large, ranging from 190 to 8,330 ha during the breeding season and from 1,370 to 170,000 ha outside of the breeding season, but activity was concentrated in small core areas of 30 to 1,535 ha and 485 to 6,380 ha during the breeding and nonbreeding seasons, respectively. Eagles selected shrub habitats and avoided disturbed areas, grasslands, and agriculture. This resulted in selection for habitat likely to contain their principal prey, black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus). Individuals with home ranges in extensive shrubland (n = 3) did not select for shrubs in the placement of their core areas or foraging points, but individuals in highly fragmented or dispersed shrublands (n = 5) concentrated their activities and foraged preferentially in jackrabbit habitats (i.e. areas with abundant and large shrub patches). As home ranges expanded outside of the breeding season, individuals selected jackrabbit habitats within their range. Shrubland fragmentation should be minimized so that remaining shrub patches are large enough to support jackrabbits.

Maxwell, J. A. (1998). TheConservation of the Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides Melissa Samuelis Nabokov): Ecological Studies on Habitat Creation and Management (Endangered), The University of Wisonsin - Madison: 204 p.
	In the decade before its listing as endangered, the Karner blue butterfly was extirpated from Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Ontario and its numbers had declined rangewide (from Minnesota to New Hampshire) by 90 percent.  Its endangerment was partially attributed to a lack of fire and other disturbances that once maintained its barrens habitat.  Experiments on prescribed burning, canopy removal and direct seeding, undertaken at Fort McCoy Military Reservation in west central Wisconsin, chronicled how the butterfly and its habitat responded to these management techniques and how its densities (life stages, sexes, and broods) varied along a light gradient in response to weather.  This research revealed that shaded habitat is essential for the survival of summer brood larvae.  The sole larval host plant, lupine (<italic>Lupinus perennis</italic> L.) often senesces at seedset, stranding larvae too young to pupate; shaded plants are less likely to flower and remain green throughout the larval stadia.  Summer brood larvae were significantly more abundant in plots with greater than 80% tree cover, even in normal years.  In extremely hot summers, adults also congregated in shadier habitat and on north-facing slopes.  Prescribed burning resulted in a decline in nectar availability in open habitat and though lupine flowering was enhanced it did not result in reproduction.  Some nectar species did respond favorably in shadier plots but burns are only recommended for the shadiest areas, combined with partial canopy removal to create openings.  Burns are not recommended for partially canopied plots with multi-stemmed oaks; these plots already have adequate nectar and high densities of flowering lupine.  Burning reduced the cover of non-reproductive lupine, a critical larval resource in these areas.  While direct seeding did not result in a substantial increase in nectar relative to adjacent Karner blue habitat, it is useful for inoculating nectar-poor areas and for providing a complete range of flowering phenologies.  The removal of canopy cover in seeded plots revealed habitat partitioning by the different life stages, broods and sexes and emphasized the importance of shrubs and tall-statured grasses and forbs in providing favorable microclimates in open areas.

McCarthy, L. E. (1996). Impact of military maneuvers on Mojave Desert surfaces: A multiscale analysis, The University of Arizona: 158 p.
	Concern for environmental management of our natural resources is most often focused on the human impacts upon these resources. Minor stresses on surface materials in sensitive desert landscapes can greatly increase the rate and character of erosion. The National Training Center, Ft. Irwin, located in the middle of the Mojave Desert, California, provides a study area of intense off-road vehicle (ORV) activity spanning a 50-year period. This study documents a case of concentrated ORV activity on sensitive desert environments, and the resulting environmental impacts. Geomorphic surfaces from two study sites within the Ft. Irwin area were mapped from 1:28,400 scale black and white aerial photographs taken in 1947. Surface disruption attributed to military activity was then mapped for the same areas from 1993, 1:12,000, black and white aerial photographs. Several field checks were conducted to verify this mapping. Images created from SPOT panchromatic and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) multispectral data acquired during the spring of 1987 and 1993 were analyzed to assess both the extent of disrupted surfaces and the surface geomorphology discernable from satellite data. Classified and merged images were then created from these data and demonstrate the capabilities of satellite data to aid in the delineation of disrupted geomorphic surfaces. Correlations were also established between highly disrupted surfaces and soil surface conditions on selected geomorphic surfaces.

Disruption maps produced from the air photos indicate that the amount of disrupted surfaces within the study sites grew from a combined total of 1.3 km$\sp2$ in 1947 to 33.4 km$\sp2$ by 1993. A combination of 6 bands of Landsat TM data with a seventh band of SPOT panchromatic data yielded a product that delineated broad geomorphic surfaces that closely correlate with those mapped from the aerial photography. An error matrix between these two products resulted in an overall accuracy of 83.36% and a Kappa Index of Agreement of 77.28%. A 15-class unsupervised classification of the SPOT panchromatic data produced the representation of the extent and levels of disruption present in the study areas that closely matched field observations.

Field sampling of soil strength and clay/silt percentages on disturbed and undisturbed surfaces reveals that these arid land surfaces react to intense ORV activity by becoming more compact and exhibiting higher percentages of clays and silts.

McClellan, Y., R. August, et al. (2003). "Uptake rates of thorium progeny in a semiarid environment." Journal of Environmental Quality 32(5): 1759-1763.
	The release rates and transformation processes that influence the mobility, biological uptake, and transfer of radionuclides are essential to the assessment of the health effects in the food chain and ecosystem. This study examined concentrations of Th-232 in both soil and vegetation at a closed military training site, Kirtland Air Force Base (KAFB), New Mexico. Brazilian sludge was intentionally introduced into the topsoil in the early 1960s to simulate nuclear weapon accidents. Soil (60) and vegetation (120) samples were collected from 1996 to 2000 and analyzed for radionuclides and progeny. High-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy was used to determine radionuclide activities. The results indicate that the thorium progeny were the predominant contaminant in soil and vegetation. Concentration ratios (CRs) were calculated based on actinium levels.

McDonagh, J. F., J. Walker, et al. (1979). "Rehabilitation and management of an Army training area." Landscape Planning 6: 375-390.
	
McDonald, E. V. (2002). "Numerical simulations of soil water balance in support of revegetation of damaged military lands in arid regions." Arid Land Research and Management 16(3): 277-290.
	Large areas of soil cover across the desert southwestern United States have been highly impacted by military training and require revegetation. Revegetation efforts commonly optimize growing conditions by increasing plant-available water through irrigation. Simulations of soil water balance were conducted using the Simultaneous Heat and Water (SHAW) model to examine how key environmental factors, including precipitation, soil properties, and irrigation strategies, control soil water balance and plant-available water. Simulations include surface and subsurface irrigation of 7 mm (water) applied monthly and 21 and 28 mm applied three times a year. Results indicate that any augmentation of soil water provides for an increase in transpiration relative to precipitation between about 50 to 250%. Subsurface irrigation provided a slightly greater increase in transpiration relative to surface irrigation, except for surface irrigation at monthly intervals, which provided the lowest increase in simulated transpiration, because most of the applied water is lost to evaporation. Results indicate that surface and subsurface irrigation three times annually and during the spring and summer months provides the greatest effective benefit. Simulations also indicate that use of bark chips as a surface mulch will decrease plant-available water, whereas surface mulch of a light colored gravel will enhance moisture retention. Construction of catchments will also increase soil water where surface runoff occurs. Application of numerical models for evaluating soil water balance provide a cost-effective method for assessing techniques designed to enhance the availability of plant water required for revegetation efforts.

McDonald, K. W. (2003). Military foot traffic impact on soil compaction properties at the United States Military Academy: A multiscale analysis, University of Missouri-Rolla: 271 p.
	The study of military training on Army installations has focused extensively on vehicle impact, whereas foot traffic impact is not as well documented. The effects of foot traffic on soil compaction properties were assessed at the Bataan Bayonet Assault Course (BBAC), located in the training area of United States Military Academy at West Point. Foot traffic impact was mathematically modeled using three different functions (Logistical Growth, Gamma, and Weibull) and data gathered from lab and field experiments. The modeled impact response behavior of the soil was compared to the actual condition of the soil in the BBAC. The comparison indicates a moderate level of compaction for the BBAC at the end of summer training. Bulk density, mean infiltration rates and soil resistance were compared over the training period to determine the soil response to induced foot traffic. The results indicate a moderate impact on soil compaction between 900 and 3,088 passes. The average infiltration rate decreased while the bearing capacity increased during the training cycle. The results indicate that the soil recovers moderately during the subsequent freeze-thaw cycle. The resulting mathematical model has potential for greater application for predicting soil conditions.

McHugh, J. P. (1996). An evaluation of the U.S. Army's satellite imagery based site selection process, Sam Houston State University.
	
McKee, M. and R. P. Berrens (2001). "Balancing army and endangered species concerns: Green vs. Green." Environmental Management 27(1): 123-133.
	A number of endangered, threatened, or at-risk species have been identified on US Army training bases. Before further training is restricted or curtailed under provisions of the US Endangered Species Act (ESA), the Army can explore available proactive options for providing habitat protection and mitigation. This paper investigates the possibility of an Army habitat acquisition program to acquire (by lease or purchase) buffer zones of at-risk species' habitat around its bases and away from training. To identify the most cost-effective manner for acquiring habitat, auction market experiments are utilized for analyzing program design, Laboratory auction experiments provide a powerful and low-cost vehicle for investigating ex ante program design issues. We find the discriminative, as opposed to a uniform price, auction with a minimum quantity requirement to be the least-cost mechanism.

McKernan, J. M. (1984). Effects of military training on mixed-grass prairie at Shilo, Manitoba, Canada, and utility of remedial seeding measures. Canada, University of Manitoba.
	
McKessey, A. N., W. E. Bien, et al. (2004). Fire management effects on vegetation at Warren Grove Air National Guard Range. 89th Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America - Lessons of Lewis and Clark: Ecological Exploration of Inhabited Landscapes, Portland, OR, USA, Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting Abstracts.
	added 3/14/06

McLendon, T., M. S. Childress, et al. (1999). EDYS 2: First year validation results for a black grama desert grassland community Fort Bliss, TX. Fort Collins, CO, Shepherd Miller, Inc.: 28 p.
	
McLendon, T., W. M. Childress, et al. (2000). EDYS Applications: Two-year validation results for grassland communities at Fort Bliss, Texas, and Fort Hood, Texas, U.S. Army Environmental Center.
	The Ecological Dynamics Simulation (EDYS) model is a personal computer based, mechanistic model that is a useful evaluation and planning tool for instigating potential plat, animal, and hydrological responses to anthropogenic and natural stressors in a wide variety of ecological systems.  It can be used to simulate effects of military training, drought, fire, grazing, and soil nitrogen availability on grassland communities. 

Experimental field validation plots were established on Fort Bliss, Texas, and Fort Hood, Texas to test the accuracy of EDYS in predicting species and community dynamics in response to water and nitrogen availability.  Baseline data were collected in early 1998; the plots were resampled at the end of the growing seasons in 1998 and 1999.  EDYS simulations were run using parameterization based on these baseline data.  The predicted 1998 and 1999 values from the simulations were compared to the sampled values to calculate accuracies of first- and second-year simulations.  
	
The results of this two-year validation study indicate that EDYS is an effective and accurate tool for predicting vegetation responded to both natural ecological stressors and changes in management scenario in a desert grassland and a midgrass prairie.  EDYS second-year accuracies were 94-99% for total aboveground biomass, 89-99% for total grasses, 82-96% for major species, and 70-83% for all species on a weighted biomass basis.  EDYS effectively simulated plant community responses to fire, livestock grazing, successional status, precipitation variation, and change in soil nitrogen availability.

McLendon, T., W. M. Childress, et al. (2001). EDYS Experimental and Validation Results for Grassland Communities. Final report. Champaign, IL, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Lab, Engineer Research and Development Center: 88 p.
	Precipitation patterns, including the effects of long-term droughts or above average precipitation and the interactions with nitrogen availability, often have enough influence on plant growth that the effects of our use or management of land are not apparent. This is especially true because of the need to judge changes in land condition over periods of months to years. One of the primary information requirements identified by Army land managers and trainers is the need to be able to project the impacts of training and management strategies on the amount of plant cover protecting the soil. Managers also need to know how long it takes a plant community to recover to the desired plant cover level after use. The purpose of this research project was to test the ability of the Ecological Dynamics Simulation (EDYS) model to accurately project plant dynamics given a wide range of precipitation patterns and nitrogen availability over a period of years to decades. The results of this research show that EDYS did accurately simulate changes in plant cover over the 2-year research period and the patterns EDYS projects over 40-year simulations closely match the patterns seen on the ground in 40-year old research plots.

McLendon, T., W. M. Childress, et al. (2003). Assessment and Application of the LCTA Protocol at MAGTFTC, Twentynine Palms, California. Final rept. Champaign, IL, Contruction Engineering Research Lab (Army), Engineer Research and Development Center: 27 p.
	The purpose of the Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA) program at the Marine Air Ground Task Force Training Command (MAGTFTC), Twentynine Palms, California, is to support natural resource management decision making. The LCTA monitoring program collects the data necessary to (1) determine effects of military activity on both the current ecological condition of MAGTFTC and the trend in this condition, (2) help characterize the relationship between military impacts and the type, location, timing, intensity, and duration of training, and (3) characterize plant communities on MAGTFTC. This report assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the current LCTA program and offers recommendations for improvements. The current LCTA Protocol meets its primary purpose by addressing the effect of training on the bajada areas of MAGTFTC and providing information for management of this type of site. Albeit a secondary purpose, the Protocol inadequately samples the variability in the overall vegetation of MAGTFTC and is weak for evaluating ecological responses to stressors other than training and all stressors in areas other than the bajadas. Two of the data collection methods used in the Protocol line transects and belt transects are useful and efficient and should be retained. Other sampling methods and the variables they quantify may merit review and discontinuance. While current requirements and funding levels will continue to drive the sampling, the Protocol would benefit from fewer variables but more locations being sampled. The data collected from 1997 to 1999 provide a useful baseline data set for a large portion of MAGTFTC. However, a number of areas were under-sampled or not sampled at all. The data analyses performed are adequate for some uses, but are inadequate for others.

McLendon, T., W. M. Childress, et al. (1998). A Successional Dynamics Simulation Model as a Factor for Determining Military Training Land Carrying Capacity. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army) 22 p.
	The U.S. Army is committed to good stewardship of  lands within military installations. The Army is also committed to achieving "training to standard" for its forces and therefore is interested in a method of determining optimum levels of training
activities such that military preparedness is maximized and ecological  impacts and their costs are minimized. A key requirement to the
successful implementation of such an optimization is the development of a successional dynamics model that predicts ecological responses to                     military and non-military stressors. A prototype simulation model has been developed, in part, using Land Condition Trend Analysis (LCTA)                     data from five Army installations. The model is based on responses of individual species and ecological processes to stressors. The model
currently has climatic, edaphic, plant, decomposition, and animal modules. Current stressors include drought, nitrogen, fire, herbivory,                     and tactical maneuvers. The core model is adapted to forest, grassland, shrubland, and desert ecosystems. Site-specific data can be added to calibrate the model to a specific ecosystem within an installation. The model has been calibrated with LCTA data and applied to multiple plant communities at five installations: Fort Bliss, TX; Fort Carson;  Fort Hood, TX; Fort Riley, KS; and Yakima Training Center, WA.

McPherson, G. R. (2004). "Linking science and management to mitigate impacts of nonnative plants." Weed technology a journal of the Weed Science Society of America 18: 1185-1188.
	No abstract

Melloh, R. A., C. H. Racine, et al. (1999). Comparisons of Digital Terrain Data for Wetland Inventory on Two Alaskan Army Bases, US Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory.
	
Melton, R. H., H. E. Balbach, et al. (2004). Monitoring of federally threatened and endangered species on U.S. Army installations. Champaign, IL, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Construction Engineering Research Lab: 77 p.
	This report presents an examination of Federally listed Threatened and Endangered (T & E) species on United States Army installations, and the results of a survey conducted to ascertain the kinds and quality of efforts being made to monitor these species in compliance with the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and AR 200-3. The report summarizes some general aspects of T & E species on Army installations using information gleaned from previous reports and Internet sources, supplemented with the data collected during the monitoring survey. Data is presented on which installations have the largest numbers of T & E species, which T & E species affect the largest number of installations, and which T & E taxa are most prevalent on installations. The relationships of Federal listing as T & E to various alternative extinction risk classifications, and to State listing status, are explored. The report presents information on monitoring of T & E species collected during a survey of a selected sample of Army installations. The completeness, variability, and consistency of the monitoring techniques reported are analyzed.

Mendoza, V. B., S. H. Watts, et al. (1997). The impact of wheeled vehicle maneuvering on the flora and fauna of the chihuahuan desert: final report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. El Paso, University of Texas.
	
Meyer, W. D. and P. J. Guerin (2000). Development of the Training Use Distribution Model (TUDM) Software. Champaign, IL, Construction Engineering Research Lab (Army), Engineering and Materials Division: 3 p.
	This technical note describes the technology choices and software development of the Training Use Distribution Model (TUDM). TUDM provides the ability to predict the spatial distribution and intensity of off-road maneuver training miles, which in turn provides disturbance data for ecological models, such as the Ecological Dynamics Simulation model (EDYS) (Guertin, Rewerts, and Dubois 1998). TUDM is one of three land conservation models chosen for prototype development in the Land Management System (LMS) Initiative. In keeping with LMS requirements "the user environment was developed based on a combination of marketplace standards (commercial-off-the-shelf browsers, Java, windows, etc.) to ensure its portability and to increase its natural maturation" (Goran et al. 1999).

Michaels, H. L. and J. F. Cully (1998). "Landscape and fine scale habitat associations of the loggerhead shrike." Wilson Bulletin 110(4): 474-482.
	This study was conducted to determine landscape and fine-scale vegetative variables associated with breeding Loggerhead Shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus) on Fort Riley Military Reservation, Kansas. Because Fort Riley is an Army training site, the influences of training disturbance to the vegetation, and range management practices on bird habitat patterns were also investigated. Breeding birds were surveyed in 1995 and 1996 using point counts. Survey plots were identified, a priori, at the landscape scale as either grassland, savannah, or woodland edge according to cover by woody vegetation. In 1996, fine-scale habitat at survey points and at bird use sites was measured and a principal components analysis used to characterize the fine-scale herbaceous vegetation structure. A military disturbance index was developed to quantify the severity of vehicle disturbance to the vegetation at survey and bird use sites. Shrikes were associated with savannah habitat at the landscape scale. Sites used by Loggerhead Shrikes were characterized at the fine-scale by tall, sparse, structurally heterogeneous herbaceous vegetation with high standing dead plant cover and low litter cover. At the fine-scale, tree and shrub density did not differ between sites used and not used by shrikes. Used sites did not differ from survey sites with respect to military training disturbance, hay harvest, or the number of years since a site was last burned. Our results in this study suggest that the shifting mosaic of vegetation on Fort Riley resulting from training and range management practices maintains adequate habitat for breeding shrikes.

Michaels-Busch, K. and D. L. Gebhart (1996). Kust control material performance on unsurfaced roadways and tank trails for training area maintenance. 5th Annual LRAM/ITAM Workshop: Utilizing ITAM as a Tool for Integrating Training and Land Management, Fort McCoy and UWSP Extension.
	
Milchunas, D. G., K. A. Schulz, et al. (1999). "Plant community responses to disturbance by mechanized military maneuvers." Journal of Environmental Quality 28(5): 1533-1547.
	The effects of 10 yr of military training exercises on vegetation structure were assessed across plant communities that differed in physiognomy and soil texture at Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS), Colorado, after release from previous grazing management. Covariate analyses aided in separating temporal trends due to both release from grazing and imposition of training disturbance from the direct effect of training. The shift in land use had both synergistic and antagonistic impacts on successional trajectories of communities, and on horizontal and vertical structural heterogeneity. Vegetation basal cover declined with increasing intensity of disturbance by tracked vehicles, but release from grazing arts additively in this ecosystem, Litter cover increased following release from grazing, even though it declined with increasing levels of disturbance. Vehicular maneuvering generally reduced woody life forms in tall-height classes to a greater extent than short-height classes. Low growing cacti were susceptible to crushing. Species and functional group responses to vehicular disturbance were sometimes dependent on community type, Long-lived perennials declined, but were replaced by short-lived perennials in only the shrub-grassland community. Annuals and exotics did not show relationships with intensity of disturbance, though some weed species increased. Community-wide species dissimilarity did not show large shifts, and patterns in species diversity or richness were not related to intensity of disturbance. The PCMS appears to be in a transient stage where release from grazing has had as much or more impacts as did the imposition of military training. Fine textured soils may be more susceptible to the cumulative effects of vehicular loads.

Milchunas, D. G., K. A. Schulz, et al. (2000). "Plant community structure in relation to long-term disturbance by mechanized military maneuvers in a semiarid region." Environmental Management 25(5): 525-539.
	Mechanized military maneuvers are an intensive form of disturbance to plant communities in large areas throughout the world. Tracking by heavy vehicles can cause direct mortality and indirectly affect plant communities through soil compaction and by altering competitive relationships. We assessed the long-term condition of structural attributes of open woodland, grassland, and shrubland communities at Fort Carson, Colorado, in relation to levels of disturbance and soil texture. Covariate analyses were used to help separate the directional forcings by the chronic disturbance from the regenerative capacities in order to assess the relative resistance and resilience of the communities and to determine whether the continual disturbance-recovery processes balanced under current levels of utilization. All three communities responded differently to disturbance. In open woodlands, altered understory/overstory relationships were suggested by increased grass, forb, shrub, and total vegetation cover and smaller decreases in shorter than taller woody species with increasing levels of disturbance. Grassland communities generally displayed greater responses to disturbance than other communities, but temporal dynamics were often similar, indicating relatively less resistance but greater resilience of this community. Weed and exotic species increased both temporally and in relation to levels of disturbance in all three community types. Temporal trends in community-level indices of dissimilarity and diversity also indicate that rates of disturbance were greater than rates of recovery. Few variables were related to within-community differences in soil texture. While total aerial cover was temporally stable, changes in species composition and in basal cover in grasslands and shrublands suggest increasing erosion potential.

Miller, C. E. (1997). Managing Local Sustainability: A Game Theoretic Analysis of Natural Resource Conservation (Game Theory), University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign: 195 p.
	 Prescribing policy to sustain environmental conditions requires an understanding of human conflict and cooperation in exploiting commonly shared resources.  Typically, a local commons characterization of natural resource exploitation addresses stock depletion of fuels, fisheries, forests, or water, deterioration of air, water, or land resources.  Less frequently considered as a local commons is endangered species habitat.  Yet this habitat spans property lines, and is subject to the exploitation of thousands, sometimes millions, of landowners.

  This is of special concern to the U.S.  government, which manages a seemingly inordinate quantity of endangered species habitat simply because it holds the largest expanses of undeveloped land in the country.  Private landowners typically develop their land, leaving government landholdings as isolated refuge for endangered species.  This phenomenon can be represented as a "game"--the fate of one player's land conditions is affected not only by her own actions but by the actions of all the other landowners in the region.

  The U.S.  Army experiences repercussions of this game.  Army combat training disturbs endangered species habitat and is constrained by laws and regulations that restrict such disturbance.  The landowners surrounding installations often destroy their habitat, which affects the Army's success in maintaining habitat conditions while carrying out the training that is the primary mission of most such installations.  The specific issue examined in this dissertation is that Army installations must sustain endangered species habitat while completing a required level of combat training, given the strategic behavior of private landholders.

  This dissertation presents a model which is a continuous-time representation of a forested system.  This system model is used to simulate the impacts of strategic behavior in managing lands in a local commons, on and around Ft.  Bragg, North Carolina.  The system model is also used in optimal control and game theoretic exercises.  It provides optimal control and game theoretic solutions for short time periods, and policy simulations over longer planning horizons.

Minor, T. B., J. Lancaster, et al. (1999). "Evaluating change in rangeland condition using multitemporal AVHRR data and geographic information system analysis." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 59(2): 211-223.
	Coarse-scale, multitemporal satellite image data were evaluated as a tool for detecting variation in vegetation productivity, as a potential indicator of change in rangeland condition in the western U.S. The conterminous U.S. Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) biweekly composite data set was employed using the six-year time series 1989-1994. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) image bands for the state of New Mexico were imported into a Geographic Information System (GIS) for analysis with other spatial data sets. Averaged NDVI was calculated for each year, and a series of regression analyses were performed using one year as the baseline. Residuals from the regression line indicated 14 significant areas of NDVI change: two with lower NDVI, and 11 with higher NDVI. Rangeland management changes, cross-country military training activities, and increases in irrigated cropland were among the identified causes of change.

Mitchell, W. A. (1998). Species Profile: Bachman’s Sparrow (Ainmphi/a aestivalis) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States. Arlington, VA, Strategic Environmental Research and Development: 34 p.
	The Bachman's sparrow (Aimophila aestivalis) is a small ground- nesting sparrow that is endemic to the southeastern United States. The former breeding range extended into the midwestern and northeastern States but has contracted to its current general limits of North Carolina, Kentucky, and central Arkansas. Birds winter along the lower Coastal Plain from North Carolina to eastern Texas and south Florida. The Bachman's sparrow is considered to be a species of special concern, as its population has declined significantly since the 1930s. This species is most common in longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savannas, which are characterized by an open overstory and a ground cover of perennial grasses and forbs interspersed with a few shrubs; it also occurs in other open habitat types with early successional vegetation. Bachman's sparrows have been documented on at least 19 installations in the Southeast. This report is one of a series of Species Profiles being developed for threatened, endangered, and sensitive species inhabiting plant communities in the southeastern United States. The work is being conducted as part of the Department of Defense (DoD) Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The report is designed to supplement information provided in plant community management reports for major United States plant communities found on military installations. Information provided on the Henslow's sparrow includes status, life history and ecology, habitat requirements, impacts and causes of decline, habitat assessment techniques, inventory and monitoring, and management and protection. 

Mitchell, W. A. (1998). Species Profile: Gray Bat ( Myotis grisescens) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U..S Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 29 p.
	The gray myotis is a medium-sized bat with a forearm length of 40 to 46 mm (1.6 to 1.8 in.) and a wingspread of 275 to 300 mm (10.8 to 11.8 in.) (Barbour and Davis 1969).
Weight ranges from 7 to 16 g (0.25 to 0.56 oz) (Gore 1992); it usually falls between 8 and 10 g (0.28 to 0.35 oz) during the summer but may increase to 16 g (0.56 oz) just before
migration (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1980). The wing membrane is attached to the foot at the ankle (Gore 1992). The calcar, a cartilaginous rod behind the
ankle, lies along the free edge of the wing membrane and is not keeled. The skull has a distinct sagittal crest (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979, Gore 1992).  The fur of the gray bat is woolly and uniform in color from the base to the tip of the
hair (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). The fur is gray immediately following the molt in midsummer but may bleach to chestnut-brown or bright russet by the following May or June, especially in reproductive females (USFWS 1980, Gore 1992).

Mitchell, W. A. (1998). Species Profile: Henslow’s Sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States. Vicksburg, MS, Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station: 25 p.
	The Henslow's sparrow (Ammodramus henslowii) is a small passerine bird that breeds in the eastern and midwestern United States and southern Canada and winters in the mid-Atlantic and Gulf Coast States. Its breeding range extends from New England and southern Ontario through the Great lakes region and north-central States to South Dakota, Kansas, and Oklahoma. Its winter range extends from northern South Carolina to central Florida and eastern Texas. The Henslow's sparrow is considered to be a species of special concern, as its population has declined significantly across its range. This species historically nested in tallgrass prairie. Optimal breeding habitat consists of tall, dense, grassy vegetation interspersed with forbs and occasional shrubs. Typical habitat includes restored tallgrass prairie, idle grasslands, pastures, meadows, and hayfields with dense cover. Wintering populations of Henslow's sparrow have been documented on three military installations in the southeastern United States; installations in the midwestern and northeastern United States should benefit most from this report because the sparrow's decreasing breeding range is located in these regions. This report is one of a series of Species Profiles being developed for threatened, endangered, and sensitive species inhabiting plant communities in the southeastern United States. The work is being conducted as part of the Department of Defense (DoD) Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). The report is designed to supplement information provided in plant community management reports for major United States plant communities found on military installations. Information provided on the Henslow's sparrow includes status, life history and ecology, habitat requirements, impacts and causes of decline, habitat assessment techniques, inventory and monitoring, and manage 

Mitchell, W. A. (1998). Species profile: Least Tern ( Sterna antillarum), Interior Population, on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 30 p.
	The least tern is the smallest North American tern, with a body length of approximately 23 cm (9 in.) and a wingspread of 51 cm (20 in.) (National Geographic Society
1983). The sexes are similar in appearance. The breeding adult has a black crown and nape, white forehead, black-tipped bill, gray back and dorsal wing surfaces, and snowy
white underwing surfaces. In flight, the black wedge on the outer primaries and the short, deeply forked tail are conspicuous.  Immature birds have darker plumage than adults, black eye stripes, white foreheads, and dark bills (National Geographic Society 1983). The juvenile is pinkish-buff above with brownish U-shaped markings on the feathers; it has a dusky crown, black eye stripe, and dark shoulder bar on the wings. The first-summer bird is similar to the adult but retains the eye stripe and shoulder bar and has a dark bill and legs and dusky primaries.

Mitchell, W. A. (1999). Species profile:  Wood Stork ( Mycteria americana), on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 42 p.
	The wood stork is a very large, long-legged wading bird approximately 1.3 m (4.3 ft) tall (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1999). Its body length (tip of bill to end of
tail) is about 1 m (3.3 ft), and its wingspan is 1.7 m (5.6 ft) (Peterson 1980). The plumage is white except for the iridescent black primaries and secondaries and a short black tail. During the breeding season a band of pale salmon-pink appears down the white underwing
coverts (Kahl 1972). The adult has an unfeathered head and neck covered with grayish-tan crusty skin broken into small scale-like plates. A band of smooth, black skin about 50 mm (2 in.) wide lies across the top of the head behind the eyes. The forehead is a smooth, tan frontal plate; the large, decurved bill is thick and dusky or reddish-brown
with blotches and streaks of black. The iris is dark brown, the legs are black, and the toes are flesh pink. Sexes are similar, but the male is slightly larger and has a longer, heavier bill. The adult wood stork holds its neck and legs fully extended in flight.  The immature wood stork is similar to the adult but has a grayish-brown feathered
head and neck and yellow bill (National Geographic Society 1983; Stokes and Stokes 1996). Wood storks require several years to reach maturity (Kahl 1964). Storks still
show some immature plumage at 3 years but have acquired full adult plumage by 4 years of age (USFW 1996).

Montes-Helu, M. C. (1997). Track-vehicle Disturbance on Rangeland and Design of Sap Flow Gauge for Desert Shrubs Agronomy, New Mexico State University: 269 p.
	Rangelands of the arid southwest are used extensively for military training.  The impact of track-vehicle traffic on the Ft.  Bliss military reservation were evaluated in soil water balance.  Military training can reduce vegetation and accelerate erosion.  Sustainable management will result from balancing disturbance intensity with recovery times.  Military activities can occur during all seasons and the possible impact in the ecology can vary.  Season and soil types produce different impact.  The objectives of this study were to measure the soil disturbance caused by track-vehicles and the resulting change in site water balance.

  Soil disturbance was analyzed with the change in the bulk density, microrelief and erosion rods.  Bulk density changed (increased) depending the number of tank passes and season.  The surface micro-topography was modified by the tank and remained months after the tank passed.  Erosion rods showed soil removal and deposition.  Water storage increased about one to 2 cm for 5 pass treatments in one site.  There was a slight increase of water storage right after the tank because the destruction of the vegetation reduced plant transpiration.

  The Penman method estimated a lower potential evapotranspiration (PET) values than expected under irrigation conditions.  Dry soil surface and low vegetative covers produced low net radiation.  A relationship between total rain and runoff measures was used in the water balance to estimate runoff.  The overall water balances, assuming zero drainage shows that all the rain was used in ET.  The actual evapotranspiration (AET) was about 15% of PET.  During the growing season the AET is 0.25 cm day$^(-1)$ in the wettest sites.  Dry Sites had a maximum AET of 0.15 to 0.20 cm day$^(-1).$.

  Direct measurement of plant transpiration has always been a problem under natural conditions.  One way to estimate of plant transpiration is the heat balance method.  This is an application of heat and accounting the heat input and output used to measure the water flow assuming study-state conditions.  The main objective was to design a sap flow gauge that can regulate the quantity of heat required depending on sap flow conditions and avoid the stem damage by overheating when there is low flow.

  Controlling heat input to maintain constant temperature difference keeping steady-state condition does not appear to damage the stem.  The simple design does not allow adequate correction for conduction losses.  The three thermocouple design allows correction for conduction losses.  However, calibrations before installation in the field are not possible.  Portable heat balance design allows laboratory calibrations before field installation.  There was a good agreement between the measurements and the calculated water flux under laboratory conditions.  Under greenhouse conditions, the heat balance method calculated the water flow in potted pecan plants quite well when compared with measured water loss.

Moore, J. (1994). "Base instinct: DoD and the woods of home." American Forests 100(5-6): 36-38.
	The US Dept. of Defense protects its water and land resources through the Legacy Program of the Defense Appropriations Act of 1991. This provides a resource and cultural management program for resources within the boundaries of and under use by military installations.

Morrison, M. L., W. M. Block, et al. (1995). "Habitat Characteristics and Monitoring of Amphibians and Reptiles in the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona." Southwestern Naturalist 40(2): 185-192.
	We determined the distribution, relative abundance, and macrohabitat use of amphibians and reptiles, and examined age- and sex-specific differences in microhabitat use in the Huachuca Mountains, southeastern Arizona. In addition, we established a repeatable, extensive method to monitor the impact of military maneuvers and other land-use activities on amphibians and reptiles. Time-constrained surveys located 15 species, with Sceloporus Jarrovii accounting for 60% of all sightings. Urosaurus ornatus, the second most abundant species, accounted for only 12% of the sightings; only one amphibian species (Bufo punctatus) was located. S. jarrovii was common in vegetation types with pine as a major component; it was relatively less abundant in oak-juniper; and it was absent in oak-juniper savannah. Urosaurus ornatus was the most abundant species in oak-juniper and brush types. Cnemidophorus was the most common species in the savannah vegetation type. There were no significant differences in the distribution by vegetation type within or between age and sex classes for S. Jarrovii, although juvenile males appeared to concentrate in pinyon-oak- juniper. Juveniles of both species differed from adults in that they were found significantly farther from water and tended to be in areas of less vegetative cover. Sample-size analysis showed the cumulative number of new species observed began to stabilize after about 80% of the sampling effort was expended for all three vegetation types analyzed. The mean number of animals observed per person-hour stabilized after about 70% of the sampling effort for all three vegetation types analyzed.

Morrison, M. L., L. S. Mills, et al. (1996). "Study and management of an isolated, rare population: The Fresno kangaroo rat." Wildlife Society Bulletin 24(4): 602-606.
	
Mouat, D. (2002). Analysis and Assessment of Military and Non-Military Impacts on Biodiversity: A Framework for Environmental Management on DoD Lands Using the Mojave Desert as a Regional Case Study. Final progress rept.: 7 p.
	This study designed and modeled alternative futures (patterns of land use as they might exist in the year 2020) to assess the projected status of biodiversity in the California Mojave Desert. The objective was to assist DoD in proactive ecosystem management of the Mojave Desert by providing projections on changing patterns of land use that might occur by 2020, and to assess the impact of future scenarios on the viability of a number of local fauna species. The set of alternative futures was based on assumptions derived from biophysical, economic, and socio-demographic drivers. While approximately 33 alternative futures were developed in the study, only 9 were evaluated against the 11 local species. These species were the Desert tortoise, Chuckwalla, Zebra-tailed lizard, Mojave fringe-toed lizard, Black-collared lizard, Side-blotched lizard, Western whiptail, Bendire's thrasher, Le Conte's thrasher, Mojave ground squirrel, and the Panamint kangaroo rat. The scenarios presented fall into two broad categories: (1) the likely trend of future development under past development policies and patterns, and (2) various alternatives to the trend that meet specific stakeholder interests and concerns. The wide range of scenarios explored urban encroachment buffers, infrastructure upgrades and enhancements, ecologically-based restrictions on development, and public/private land exchanges. Results show that all of the futures have essentially the same impact on habitat loss with some affecting some species more than others. The habitat most threatened is the sand and gravel-dominated habitat, 66% of which occurs on private land. The three species most threatened in this habitat are the Panamint kangaroo rat, the Mojave ground squirrel, and the Mojave fringe- toed lizard. The authors recommend that DoD be concerned over the potential loss of the Mojave Desert habitat and take a proactive role by assisting the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in managing it.

Mulholland, P. J., J. N. Houser, et al. (2005). "Stream diurnal dissolved oxygen profiles as indicators of in-stream metabolism and disturbance effects: Fort Benning as a case study." Ecological Indicators 5: 243-252.
	We investigated whether two characteristics of stream diurnal dissolved oxygen profiles, the daily amplitude and maximum
value of the dissolved oxygen saturation deficit, are useful indicators of stream metabolism and the effects of catchment-scale
disturbances. The study was conducted at the U.S. Army’s Fort Benning installation where vegetation loss and high rates of
erosion from intensely used training areas and unpaved roads have resulted in extensive sedimentation in some streams. Diurnal
profiles of dissolved oxygen were measured in 10 second-order streams draining catchments which exhibited a range of
disturbance levels. Rates of gross primary production (GPP) and total ecosystem respiration (R) per unit surface area were
determined for each stream using the single-station diurnal dissolved oxygen change method with direct measurement of air–
water oxygen exchange rates. The daily amplitude of the diurnal dissolved oxygen deficit profile was highly correlated with daily
rates of GPP, and multiplying the daily amplitude by average stream depth to account for differences in water volume did not
improve the correlation. The daily maximum dissolved oxygen deficit was highly correlated with daily rates of R, and
multiplying by average stream depth improved the correlation. In general, these indicators of stream metabolism declined
sharply with increasing catchment disturbance level, although the indicators of R showed a more consistent relationship with
disturbance level than those of GPP. Our results show that the daily amplitude and maximum value of diurnal dissolved oxygen
deficit profiles are good indicators of reach-scale rates of metabolism and the effects of catchment-scale disturbance on these
metabolism rates. At Fort Benning, and presumably at other military installations, they are useful tools for evaluating trends in
impacts from military training or rates of recovery following restoration activities.

Neese, E. C., P. P. Douglas, et al. (1998). Floristic inventory of Fort Hunter Liggett. Monterey County California, Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands.
	
Nelson, L. (1992). Plant growth regulators for vegetation management at military installations. 71st Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC (USA).
	n/a

Nelson, R. A. (1958). Vegetation Transect of the Thule Peninsula. Research study rept. Natick, MA, Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center: 17 p.
	Vegetation of the Thule Peninsula was sampled along a 16-mile transect between Thule Air Base and Camp Tuto. The general vegetation is small and sparse. Grasses and sedges, found in marshy areas, are the largest plants; most of the trees and other plants are less than five inches high. The vegetation may be used in and emergency for fuel, food, and insulation by individuals or small groups; it is of no value for providing opportunities for cover or concealment.

Oliver, M. A. and R. Webster (1995). Description of Sampling Programme for Part of Fort Benning. Interim rept. no. 2, Oct 94-Jan 95, Reading Univ. (England): 5 p.
	This report describes the site to be studied, i.e. Fort Benning, from the SPOT image. This area is used for heavy artillery, tank and parachute training. Environmental protection is important and the sampling will aim to monitor the condition of this area. Our first task will be to design a scheme using only information from the pattern in the image for a 3m x 3m area; and for two smaller areas within this: an area with the Red Cockaded Woodpecker and one cleared for parachute training that is eroding heavily. The spatial scale and structure of the variation will be determined using the variogram, and the latter will be used in kriging the vegetation to produce a map. In addition we shall examine the effect of different spatial scales on the variogram and the consequences for sampling.

Olson, G. S. (1999). Population dynamics of Townsend's grounds squirrels in southwestern Idaho. Fishery and wildlife biology. Fort Collins, Colorado State University: 254 p.
	Townsend's ground squirrels ( Spermophilus townsendii , or TGS) are a conspicuous component of the desert shrub-steppe ecosystem of southwestern Idaho. In 1991, a large-scale research project was initiated to assess the impacts of habitat alterations on TGS populations located within the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (SRBPNCA), where TGS are the primary prey of the raptors for which the area is named. During 4 years (1991-1994), >5,000 TGS were live-trapped on 20 study sites to answer questions about whether TGS density, survival and productivity were affected by either the recent large-scale conversion of native shrub habitat to grassland by wildfires, or the use of a portion of the SRBPNCA by the Idaho Army National Guard for military tank training. Capture-recapture methods were used to collect data to estimate abundance and survival of TGS using Jolly-Seber based open population estimation techniques with the additional feature of modeling of capture and survival probabilities. Ground squirrel densities were highest in 1992, immediately before a population crash caused by a severe late spring drought in that year. Declines in density were greater among populations in grassland habitats than in shrub habitats. Survival rates of adult ground squirrels were found to vary by habitat, sex, and year and season within year. Dispersal patterns of juvenile ground squirrels in 2 habitat types (shrub and grass) were measured in a radio-telemetry study conducted in 1993-1994.

A spatially explicit population model for TGS on the SRBPNCA was constructed to integrate the population parameters estimated in other portions of this research and to investigate potential impacts of habitat patterns on population dynamics of Townsend's ground squirrels. Population parameters vary by environmental conditions (assessed 2 times during each model year) and habitat. Population parameter values were estimated from data collected during the TGS demography study. Model simulations of the TGS population model were conducted on a 10,000 cell test area of the SRBPNCA. In model simulations under random environmental conditions, TGS populations experienced population growth, and growth was higher in grass habitats than in shrub habitats.

O'Neil, L. J., M. R. Waring, et al. (1990). Proposed 9th Infantry Division force conversion, maneuver damage, erosion, and natural resources assessment Yakima Firing Center, Washington; Volume II: Plates. Vicksburg, MS, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
	
Orassa, C. (1999). Integrating Military Environmental Protection; Techniques and Procedures for Military Environmental Protection. Fort Leavenworth, KS, Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL): 58 p.
	
Ostler, W. K. (1999). Range sustainability: Assessment and reclamation of arid plant communities and training area design for mission sustainability, Bechtel Nevada Corp. (US).
	Seventy percent of US Department of Defense training and testing areas is on arid and semiarid land. Testing and training activities are often more devastating to arid lands than more mesic areas and, consequently, can threaten the continuation of military testing and training operations in these areas. Current gaps exist in diagnostic capabilities to distinguish among various degrees of sustainable and nonsustainable impacts from earth-disturbing activities in desert ecosystems. Work is ongoing to develop innovative remote sensing techniques to rapidly characterize impacts of military training and testing on arid environments. The diagnostic techniques include new rapid detection methods of image collection and laser induced fluorescence imagery techniques to provide early detection of the condition of stressed plants. Innovative image processing techniques will be assessed which will provide rapid assessment of vegetation parameters used in various US Department of Defense environmental management models such as the Army Training and Testing Area Carrying Capacity. New and cost-effective techniques for revegetation of disturbed training lands will be examined at Fort Irwin--the National Training Center in the Mojave Desert of California.

Palazzo, A. J. and G. S. Brar (1997). The Effects of Temperature on Germination of Eleven Festuca Cultivars, US Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research & Engineering Laboratory: 12 p.
	Many studies have shown that water
potential at planting affects the germination rate and
final germination of Festuca cultivars. Limited information
is available about the extent of variability in
temperature-dependence of germination among
different Festuca cultivars. Our objective was to study
germination at five temperatures for a wide range of
Festuca cultivars. Festuca seeds were screened for
germination during 28 days in polyethylene growth
pouches held at constant temperatures of 10, 15, 20,
25, or 30°C. The germination percentage significantly
( p < 0.05) increased as the temperature increased
from 10 to 15°C, when averaged across the cultivars,
and decreased thereafter. The cultivar “Clemfine” tall
fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) had the greatest
germination percentage, and “Arctared” red fescue
(Festuca rubra L.) had the least when averaged
across the five temperatures. Conversely, the average
time to germination ( Atg) was greatest at 10°C and
least at 30°C. Reaching a germination level of 80%
or more of the seeds required 14 days at 10°C, 9 d at
15°C, 8 d at 20°C, and 7 d at 25 or 30°C. Base
temperatures required for germination of Festuca
species were 3.2°C for rapid germinators, 3.6 to 6°C
for medium germinators, and 4 to 6°C for poor germinators.
Heat units (growing degree-days >10°C)
calculated for the rapid germinators were 129°C-d,
120 to 140°C-d for medium germinators, and 135 to
191°C-d for the poor germinators. Germination
decreased as heat units were increased. The Atg and
heat unit regressions explained 91% and 66% of the
variations in germination, respectively. The optimum
temperature for germination of Festuca cultivars was
15°C. Seeding time for some Festuca cultivars could
be varied based on expected seed zone temperatures
for particular locations. Results of this study should be
interpreted with caution, but they suggest that selection
for rapid growth rate among materials of favored
phenological patterns may lead to improved establishment
of faster species on poorly managed sandy
soils in cold climates. Rapidity and total germination
are the most obvious factors distinguishing Festuca
cultivars. This study demonstrates the variability in
cultivar germination in response to temperature.

Palazzo, A. J., L. W. Gatto, et al. (1994). Guidelines for Managing Vegetation on Earth-Covered Magazines Within the U.S. Army Materiel Command. Hanover, NH, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab: 43 p.
	The purpose of these guidelines is to assist land managers in establishing and maintaining vegetation on earth-covered magazines (ECMs) in a safe, efficient and cost-effective manner. Although the vegetation management procedures discussed here are intended primarily for conventional storage ECMs, not those used for special weapons, many of the general procedures and principles presented apply to both types. In humid areas a healthy vegetative cover on ECMs is the primary factor in maintaining the stable soil cover that is required to meet safety standards. Thus, a vegetation management planning process is presented that assists land managers in defining management goals, assessing climatic and soil factors and evaluating vegetation options. Specific methods and procedures that have proven successful for maintaining and re-establishing an effective vegetation cover are outlined. Other methods used to stabilize the ECM soil cover in dry climates, where cost-effective maintenance of vegetation can be difficult to impossible, are briefly discussed as well.

Palazzo, A. J., K. B. Jensen, et al. (2005). "Effects of tank tracking on range grasses." Journal of Terramechanics 42(3-4): 177-191.
	The Department of Defense (DoD) must constantly balance its military mission and its commitment to stewardship on large tracks of federal land. These military training lands are some of the most intensely used land in the United States, and training requires that vegetation, primarily grasses, be as resilient as possible. The objectives of this study were to evaluate (i) plant establishment and (ii) the effect of light to heavy tank traffic that ranged from zero to four passes on range grasses at the Yakima Training Center, Yakima, Washington. Characteristics measured include the number of 10-cm gaps without plant materials in seeded rows of the target (sown) species, the biomass of the target species, and the percentages of bluegrass colonization, bare ground, and cheatgrass encroachment in tracked and untracked areas. Both stand establishment and the ability to produce rhizomes are associated with the ability to recover after training. The wildryes did not establish well and subsequently had more 10-cm gaps and lower yields than the other introduced species tested. Among the natives, Snake River wheatgrass and western wheatgrass exhibited the most resilience across the different tracking intensities. The largest decline in percentage target species was observed between the two- and four-pass treatments. After five years, cheatgrass was not able to encroach on Snake River wheatgrass, Siberian wheatgrass, and bluebunch wheatgrass plots: Tracking generally reduced the stand of the target species and increased the amount of bare ground. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of ISTVS.

Palazzo, A. J., C. H. Racine, et al. (1991). Management of Vegetation on Ammunition Magazines at AMC Facilities. Special rept. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab: 24 p.
	Ammunition magazines, commonly called igloos, are large, above-ground, earth-covered bunkers used to store munitions at almost all military facilities. Properly maintained igloos have perennial, well-knit vegetation cover that reduces erosion, have relatively low maintenance cost, provide wildlife habitat and grazing land, and are pleasing to look at. On poorly managed igloos, soil erodes at an excessive rate, and they become unsafe and need to be rebuilt. An ideal vegetation would require little or no maintenance, would retard soil erosion, would not become a fire hazard and would resist invasion by woody vegetation and annual weeds. The purpose of this project was to survey Army Materiel Command facilities to determine their strategies for managing ammunition bunkers, or igloos. This work is part of a research program to develop cost effective methods for safely establishing and maintaining vegetation on igloos. The results of the survey will be used to help standardize management requirements at all facilities, improve vegetation management techniques, and plan research objectives in areas where there is limited information.

Palazzo, A. J., P. Zang, et al. (1996). The Effects of Temperature on Germination of Eleven Festuca Cultivars, US Army Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research  and Engineering Lab: 9 p.
	
Palis, J. G. (1997). Species Profile: Flatwoods Salamander (Ambystoma cingulatum) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 19 p.
	The flatwoods salamander is a moderately sized (up to 76-mm (3-in.) snout-vent length, 135-mm (5.3-in.) total length; Palis 1996), slender salamander with a relatively
small, pointed head and stout tail, weighing from 4.5 to 10.5 g (0.16 to 0.37 oz), adult male and gravid female, respectively (Palis 1996). The body is black to chocolate-black
with fine, irregular, light gray lines that form a netlike or crossbanded pattern across the back. In some individuals the gray pigment is widely scattered and “lichenlike.”
Melanistic, uniformly black individuals are occasionally encountered (Carr 1940). The belly is black to chocolate-black with a scattering of gray spots or flecks.

Although sexual dimorphism is not pronounced in flatwoods salamanders, males can be distinguished from females during the breeding season by their slightly swollen cloaca.
In addition, mature gravid females are heavier and more robust than males at this time (Palis 1996).  The broad-headed, boldly striped pond-type larva can attain a snout-vent length of 47 mm (1.8 in.) and total length of 96 mm (3.8 in.) before metamorphosis (Palis 1996).  The striping pattern, from mid-dorsum down the sides, includes a pale tan mid-dorsal
stripe, grayish-black dorsolateral stripe, pale cream mid-lateral stripe, blue-black lateral stripe, and pale yellow ventrolateral stripe. A black stripe extends from the snout,
through the eyes, to the base of the gills. A second dark stripe, extending along the upper jaw, is typically present, as well.


Palis, J. G. and R. A. Fischer (1997). Species Profile: Gopher Frog ( Rana capito spp.) on Military Installations in the Southeastern United States, Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station: 39 p.
	The gopher frog (Rana capito ssp.) is a medium-sized stocky frog with a relatively large head and short legs.  Its snout-vent lenght (SVL) may be up to 112 mm (4.4 in.), and its weight ranges from 47 to 151 g (1.6 to 5.3 oz.) for adult males and gravid females, respectively (Palis 1995b).  The skin ranges from smooth to warty in texture and from creamy-white to gray or brown in color.  The dorsum and sides are dotted with dark brown or black spots and blotches of various sizes and shapes.  A pair of prominent raised folds (dorsolateral folds) lie along either side of the back.  The venter is white, cream, or yellowish and is typically spotted or mottled with dark pigment; there is often a yellowish wash in the groin area.

The egg mass of the gopher frog is typically fist size and slightly oblong to nearly spherical in shape.  Tadpoles are yellowish-green to olive-green with scattered, relatively large, diffuse black spots on the upper body, tail musculature, and fin.  They attain a total lenght of 84 mm (3.3 in.) before transformation (Wright and Wright 1949) and SVL of 26 to 38 mm (1.0 to 1.5 in.) at metamorphosis (Phillips 1995).  However, Semlitsch et al. (1995) found larger metamorphs (range of sizes not given).  Metamorphs weigh 3.0 to 5.5 g (0.1 to 0.2 oz) (Palis 1995b).

The call of the gopher frog is a loud snore-like vocalizations that lasts up to 2 sec and carries nearly 0.4 km (0.25 mile) (Wright and Wright 1949).  However, the gopher frog also will call frequently while submerged, and these calls are not audible at distances >10 m (33 ft) (Jensen et al. 1995).

Parliman, D. J. (2005). Assessment of soil and water contaminants from selected locations in and near the Idaho Army National Guard Orchard Training Area, Ada County, Idaho, 2001-2003. Boise, ID, U.S. Geological Survey: 24 p.
	In 2001, the National Guard Bureau and the U.S. Geological Survey began a project to compile hydrogeologic data and determine presence or absence of soil, surface-water, and ground-water contamination at the Idaho Army National Guard Orchard Training Area in southwestern Idaho. Between June 2002 and April 2003, a total of 114 soil, surface-water, ground-water, precipitation, or dust samples were collected from 68 sample sites. Soil and water samples were analyzed for concentrations of selected total trace metals, major ions, nutrients, explosive compounds, semivolatile organics, and petroleum hydrocarbons. Water samples also were analyzed for concentrations of selected dissolved trace metals and major ions.

Parysow, P. and D. J. Tazik (2001). Assessing the Effect of Estimation Error on Population Viability Analysis: An Example Using the Black-Capped Vireo. Vicksburg, MS U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center: 31 p.
	no abstract 


Parysow, P. and D. J. Tazik (2002). "Assessing the effect of estimation error on population viability analysis: an example using the black-capped vireo." Ecological Modelling 155(2-3): 217-229.
	Population viability analysis (PVA) is usually conducted assuming that values of factors that characterize both average conditions and natural variability (stochasticity) are error-free. However, those values are often estimates of true parameters and, therefore, have an associated estimation error. This error, also called uncertainty, arises from limitations of the methods used to estimate parameter values, such as sampling, measurement, and expert opinion error. Natural resource management decisions must be made in spite of incomplete information, and the impact of uncertainty when establishing specific management objectives must be assessed. We propose a strategy to reflect our current degree of knowledge about stochastic and average system conditions by accounting for error in parameter estimates of PVA models and assessing its effect on establishing endangered species conservation objectives. Using the computer simulation model , we applied this strategy to the black-capped vireo (Vireo atricapillus), an endangered neotropical migrant land bird species. We pursued two conservation goals in this study: probability of persistence and retention of genetic diversity of at least 95 and 90%, respectively, over the next 100 years. We evaluated two situations, one accounting for uncertainty, the other not. Achieving the conservation goals while explicitly accounting for