PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT

Outcome Component 1: Copes Effectively With Personal Challenges, Frustrations and Stressors
 

Introduction

In our model of personal and social adjustment in children, helping children develop the skills to cope appropriately with life's normal and not-so-normal challenges and frustrations is an important outcome (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993).  Children very often lack control over the stressful situations in which they find themselves, and the coping resources available to them vary considerably.  Therefore, when evaluating coping as a program outcome, it is best to focus on the child's coping efforts and strategies rather than on whether their efforts are successful (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Compas, 1987; Ryan-Wenger, 1992), even though a child with effective coping skills may well appear better adapted and more socially competent than a child who does not have these skills.  Outcomes and measures related to general adaptation, social competence, and social problem solving  are discussed at more length in Personal & Social Adjustment Component 3: Getting Along With Others.
 
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define coping as the "constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts people make to manage external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person".  The key is the match between demands and resources.  Reasonable or developmentally appropriate challenges that are matched to a child's age and resources can stimulate children to stretch and develop their coping skills.  Examples for school-aged children might include coping with teasing on the playground or frustration with a difficult task.  Unfortunately, many children also encounter developmentally inappropriate challenges which would overwhelm the coping skills of most children of the same age, such as homelessness or having to cope with an alcoholic or abusive parent (Wills, Blechman, & McNamara, 1996; Zimmerman & Arunkumar, 1994; Rutter, 1987). 

Children who have a range of strategies in their repertoire and can use them flexibly as the situation demands may be the most effective copers (Compas, 1987; Ryan-Wenger, 1992).  If a stressful situation can be readily changed by changes in the child's own behavior, then an active, problem-focused approach to generating solutions is probably most adaptive.  For example, if a child is dreading school because of difficulties completing math homework in a timely way, he or she might actively cope by seeking out tutoring help, or learning better time management skills.  Healthy problem-focused strategies include gathering information, coming up with more than one solution for the problem, and making a plan of action.  On the other hand, if the situation is truly beyond the child’s control, such as the death or serious illness of a parent, then emotional or cognitive strategies may allow the child to get on with other life tasks.  Emotion-focused strategies include reinterpreting the situation in a more positive light, seeking support from others, or doing something to take one’s mind off of the problem.  Play, imagination, and 
physical activity are also important forms of emotional coping for children. 
Interpersonal resources and close relationships with adult caregivers are also especially important coping resources in childhood (Skinner & Wellborn, 1994; Rutter, 1987).  Resiliency theory suggests that opportunities to interact with caring non-parental adults take on particular significance for children who have not had the benefit of nurturing relationships within their families (Werner, 1989; Rutter, 1987).  Some programs may explicitly seek to provide ongoing mentoring relationships for children at risk.
 

Suggested Indicators

The following are some appropriate indicators of positive program outcomes for children in the area of coping, based on the NCEO model (Ysseldyke & Thurlow, 1993), as adapted for community-based programs by the Children’s Outcome Workgroup.  The appropriateness of any given indicator for your program evaluation depends on the age of the children you serve, the setting, and the goals and activities of your particular program.  The indicators below tend to focus on the more normative kinds of challenges that children are likely to face; other indicators may be appropriate for children who are coping with specific or unusual challenges.
 

• Percent of children who deal appropriately with frustration and unfavorable events
• Percent of children (age 6 and older) who express feeling and needs in socially acceptable ways
• Percent of children (age 6 and older) whose behavior reflects an appropriate degree of self control and responsibility
• Percent of children (Grade 4 and older) whose behavior reflects knowledge and acceptance of consequences of behavior 
• Percent of children who have developed at least one positive coping strategy (such as exercise, verbal expression, or conflict resolution skills)
• Percent of children who have at least one positive adult-child relationship

Summary

In general, interventions that give the child some sense of control over a situation that had appeared hopeless are helpful.  Providing opportunities for the child to develop a supportive relationship with at least one non-parental adult is also a highly appropriate outcome objective for community-based programs for children at risk.  Traditional 4-H activities have long provided such opportunities for school-aged children to practice developing skills with peers and non-parental adults, and State Strengthening projects provide an additional means for communities to extend these opportunities to reach and benefit more children at risk.

When measuring coping as a program outcome, it is best to focus on age-appropriate coping strategies used by children rather than on whether their coping efforts were successful.  A thorough assessment of children’s coping would include the child’s sense of control over the situation, and his or her ability to generate, select and implement a variety of strategies (Knapp, 1992).  Since few well-validated measures of coping appear to be available for children that meet these criteria, evaluators may prefer to use discrete indicators, or subscales from more 
general measures.  Behavioral observations may also be useful for very young children. 
 

References

 Compas, B. E. (1987). Coping and stress during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 393-403.

 Knapp, L. G. (1991).  Assessing coping in children and adolescents: Research and practice.  Educational Psychology Review, 3 (4), 309-334.

 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping.  New York: Springer Publishing.

 Ryan-Wenger, N. M. (1992).  A taxonomy of children’s coping strategies: A step toward theory development.  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62 (2), 256-262.

 Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316-331.

 Skinner, E. A., & Wellborn, J. G. (1994).  Coping during childhood and adolescence: A motivational perspective.  In D. L. Featherman, P. B. Baltes, R. M. Lerner, & M. Perlmutter (Eds.), Lifespan development and behavior: Vol. 12. (pp. 91-133).  Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 Werner, E. (1989). Children of the garden island. Scientific American, (April), 106-111.

 Wills, T. A., Blechman, A., & McNamara, G. (1996).  Family support, coping, and competence.  In E. M. Hetherington & E. A. Blechman (Eds.), Stress, coping, and resiliency in children and families (p. 107-133). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

 Ysseldyke, J. E., & Thurlow, M. (1993, October). Developing a model of educational outcomes (NCEO Report No. 1). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, College of Education, National Center on Educational Outcomes.

 Zimmerman, M. A., & Arunkumar, R. (1994). Resiliency research: Implications for schools and policy. Social Policy Report, 8, , 1-17.
 
 
 

MEASURES:  Copes Effectively With Personal Challenges, Frustrations and Stressors

The following standardized assessments are provided as examples of measures that may be useful for evaluation of community-based programs.  This listing is not comprehensive, and is not intended as an endorsement of any particular measure.  Some of the assessment instruments that follow are copyrighted, and require specific levels of training to administer.  Prices of commercially-available measures may be subject to change.  While subscales that appear most relevant for this outcome area are highlighted, evaluators who are considering any standardized instrument will want to individually review the items on each measure and subscale to ensure that they are appropriate for a particular program. 

It is important to recognize that standardized measures, such as the ones listed below, are not the only appropriate ways to assess outcomes for children.  In fact, it is highly recommended that standardized measures be used in conduction with other methods, including qualitative assessments, and other indicators which may be obtainable from existing records for some school-aged programs [see Using Existing Data elsewhere on the CYFAR Evaluation website]. 
Teacher, staff, or parent observations or behavioral checklists indicating that children exhibit at least one positive coping strategy, or has at least one positive relationship with a supportive  adult, may be appropriate measures in this area. 
 

1.  Child Observation Record (COR)  High/Scope 
Date:   1992

Subtests: 

   Academic Achievement
   Coping Strategies
   Self-Esteem
   Social Skills
   Problem Solving Skills

High/Scope Educational Research Foundation
600 North River Street
Ypsilanti, MI  48198
(313) 485-2000

$90.00 (check with High/Scope for current prices)

Ages 2 1/2 to 6 years 

COR is a teacher checklist developed by the High Scope Educational Research Foundation for assessment of preschoolers. This measure is behaviorally focused, can be used in parts (subscales), and is not excessively time-consuming for teachers or program staff to administer, so it tends to be well accepted by preschool teachers and program staff.  The COR has been successfully used with low-income and ethnic minority populations.  The Coping Strategies subscale would appear to be relevant to this outcome component.

2.  Teacher-Child Rating Scale (T-CRS)  Primary Mental Health Project
Date:   1993 (1986)

Subtests: 

The T-CRS consists of two parts, one dealing with classroom problem areas, and one dealing with competency areas. The subscales are empirically derived.
Problem Area Subscales: 
     Acting Out Behaviors 
     Shy-Anxious Behaviors 
     Learning Skills
Competency Subscales: 
     Frustration Tolerance 
     Assertive Social Skills
     Task Orientation
     Peer Social Skills

      Primary Mental Health Project, Inc.
       685 South Ave.
       Rochester, NY  14620-1345
       Phone: 716-262-2920
       FAX: 716-262-4761

30 cents/form. For an additional 50 cents/form, forms can be computer scored at PMHP, which will provide summaries and individual profiles. Students using the T-CRS for their own research (theses and dissertations) can request permission to reproduce the measure free of charge. 

Primarily used with kindergarten through third grade children, but has been successfully used with preschoolers through high school aged children, with minor adaptation of some items (e.g., "Learning academic skills" in preschool settings would translate into “age-appropriate school-readiness skills”).

The T-CRS is a 38-item behaviorally-oriented checklist completed by teachers or program staff.  Tends to be well-accepted by teachers and program staff because it is quick (3-5 minutes per child), and assesses relative strengths and weaknesses.  T-CRS may be used either as a quick screening tool to assess children's emotional, behavioral, social, and general school adaptation, or as a pretest-posttest measure to evaluate progress.  It may be used at either individual or group levels for evaluation purposes.  Although developed for evaluation of social skills intervention programs in school settings, the T-CRS has been used in other community-based group settings for children in this age range.  Separate norms are available for males and females, and for urban and non-urban residents.

3.  Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Classroom Edition: Socialization Domain (VABS)
S. Sparrow, D. Balla, & D. Cicchetti
Date:  1985

Subtests:   

Four domains and eleven subdomains: 
1) Communication (Receptive, Expressive, and Written) 
2) Daily Living Skills (Personal, Domestic, and Community) 
3) Socialization (Interpersonal Relationships, Play and Leisure Time, Coping Skills)
4) Motor Skills (Gross and Fine).

American Guidance Service (AGS)
4201 Woodland Road
P.O. Box 99
Circle Pines, MN 55014-1796
Phone: 1-800-328-2560

Check with AGS for current prices; prices vary for different versions.  Starter sets include manual, 10 questionnaire forms, and parent report forms.

3-12 years for Classroom edition; birth to 18 years for Interview edition

The Classroom edition is a 244-item questionnaire completed by teachers, and takes about 20 minutes to administer.  The Interview edition is administered to parents or caregivers as a semi-structured interview, and takes 20-60 minutes.  Qualified professionals must interpret the scores.  Computer programs may be purchased for analysis, and materials are available in Spanish.  Standardized on a large national sample that reflects U.S. census data.  Appears to be valid and flexible for use with a wide range of ages. 

Additional measures related to general adaptation, social competence, and social problem-solving skills are described in the Measures section of Personal & Social Adjustment Component 3: Gets Along With Other People. 

Personal and Social Adjustment	Bibliography
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